Read chapter 8. Summarize the chapter. What was the most surprising thing you learned? How does the knowledge from this chapter help you to motivate yourself towards desired goals?
Provide a list of terms at the end of your post that you used from the chapter.
Chapter 8 discusses the topic of plans and goals. Everyone has a perspective of their current state and their ideal state. Whenever their current or real state is not the same as their ideal state they are motivated to close the gap between the two in order to make their ideal state a reality. This incongruity between real state and the ideal state is the motivating factor for people, and the plan is the means to which that motivation is met and incongruity is diminished. The TOTE Model illustrates this cycle: Test, Operate, Test, Exit. A person will test their current state to their ideal state, operate on the environment to reach the ideal state, test the incongruity again, and if the real state has met the ideal state then they will exit the cycle. If the ideal state has not been met after the first TOT, then they will continue to operate and test until it has been met and then they can exit. The incongruity, or discrepancy, between the present state and the ideal state is what motivates a person to put forth the effort to change their present state. There are two types of discrepancy: discrepancy reduction and discrepancy creation. The discrepancy reduction is based on the feedback given about the discrepancy they have between their current and ideal states. The discrepancy creation is based on the feed-forward system where the individual sets a high goal and tries to reach a very high ideal state without the need for feedback from the environment or others.
This chapter talks about how individuals who set and strive to accomplish goals are more successful than those who do not. But also, that goals need to have the right difficulty and specificity. Goal difficulty is just how difficult the goals is to accomplish. The more difficult the goal, the more energized the person is to accomplish it because easy goals stimulate little effort and higher difficulty goals stimulate high effort. The goal not only needs to be the right difficulty buy also needs to be specific. Goal specificity is the specific details of what the individual is to do to accomplish the goal. It gives the person direction in the goal. The difficulty energizes the performer, and the specificity directs the performer, both are needed to accomplish the goal. The individual also needs to receive feedback as they strive to reach the goal in order for them to stay on track and to determine how the discrepancy between present and ideal state is being reduced. In the goal setting process, the individual simply needs to follow four steps: define the objective to be accomplished, set the goal difficulty, clarify goal specificity, and set up times to be assessed on performance.
The most surprising thing I learned was that I often do not set my goals with the right difficulty or specificity. I was surprised how accurately the chapter described my tendencies when setting goals: setting them too high and quitting, not being specific and then changing my goals to lower ones because I was not motivated or pushed to the higher goal. This surprise has also helped me to think differently about the goals I set. It has motivated me to make my goals more specific and to set up times where I evaluate how I am doing in accomplishing the goal. Also, I am now more motivated to push myself and shoot for higher, more difficult, goals because I can be energized and motivated to accomplish them!
Terms: present state. ideal state. incongruity. discrepancy. TOTE Model. Discrepancy reduction and creation. Goal difficulty and specificity.
Chapter 8 focuses on goal setting and goal striving. The cognitive perspective on motivation focuses on mental processes as causal determination to action. This chapter discusses the motivational significance of four elements in the cognition-action sequence: plans, goals, implementation intentions, and mental stimulations.
People have knowledge of both their present and ideal states and any perceived incongruity between the two makes people uncomfortable enough to formulate and act on a plan of action to remove the incongruity so that the present state will change and become the ideal state. The incongruity is the motivation, and the plan becomes a way of organizing behavior toward an ideal state. The TOTE model is the cognitive mechanism by which plans energize and direct behavior. A mismatch between the two will spring a person into action.
Corrective motivation activates a decision-making process in which the person considers many different possible ways for reducing the present-ideal incongruity: change the plan, change behavior, or withdraw from plan. Corrective motivation also involves emotion. Someone who progresses toward their ideal state feel little emotion. On the other hand, people who do not reach ideal state feel negative emotions, such as anxiety and despair.
Plans and goals rely on discrepancy as their driving motivational force to action. Discrepancy creates the sense of wanting to change the present state so that it will move closer and closer toward the ideal state. For example, in my present state, I have 200 pages left to read. My ideal state, however would be 0 pages left to read. There are two types of discrepancies. First of all, discrepancy reduction is based on the discrepancy-detecting feedback that underlies plans and corrective motivation. The second type is discrepancy creation, which is based on a “feed-forward” system in which the person looks forward and proactively sets a future or higher goal.
A goal is whatever an individual is striving to accomplish. Goals generate motivation by focusing a person’s attention on the discrepancy between their present state and ideal state. Goals that are specific and difficult improve performance. Feedback and goal acceptance are necessary in order for performance to be enhanced. The chapter concluded by offering an eight-step goal-setting program to integrate the principles of this chapter and to help people put the principles into action.
The most surprising thing I learned in the chapter is that goal difficulty and goal specificity are very important in reaching a set-goal. I have always set minor goals for myself, but I never go beyond that. Also, the text stated that repeated short term goals on uninteresting tasks provide opportunities for feedback, which enhance intrinsic motivation. On the other hand, on interesting tasks, only long-term goals create intrinsic motivation.
After reading and reflecting on this chapter I have learned how to set goals properly. The most important thing I need to focus on is goal difficulty and specificity. Next, I need to provide positive feedback for myself so I recognize I am moving along in a timely fashion. Lately, I haven’t really been motivated to set any goals(senioritis), but this chapter made me reflect on my present state and my ideal state. In respect to that, I am already setting goals in my head as I’m blogging this!
ME TERMS: Tote model. Plans. Goals. Goal difficulty/specificity. Discrepancy reduction/creation. Goal-setting.
Chapter 8 introduces a new section that discusses motivational variables in the cognition → action sequence that includes: plans, goals, implementation intentions, and mental simulations. The beginning of the chapter reveals that people are aware of their “ideal state” and “present state” of their behavior, environment and events. When an individual finds an incongruity, or mismatch between their present state and ideal state, a plan is formed to change in hopes of achieving the ideal state of their behavior, environment, or event they are displease with. The incongruity provides energy and the plan toward the ideal behavior provides action. The test-operate-test-exit (TOTE) model, explains that a person tests the present state and if they still aren’t satisfied, they will operate on that specific task until it fits their ideal state. Plans also involve emotions by the duration of achieving their ideal state. Discrepancy is what causes the motivational factors in achieving an ideal state. As given as an example in the text, the author says, “…people who are stuck in traffic (present state) wish they were instead driving without interference (ideal state), and the awareness of the mismatch creates a want that motivates people to take action necessary to remove the rather bothersome discrepancy.” Two types of discrepancy exist: discrepancy reduction and discrepancy creation. Goals generate motivation by focusing a person’s attention on the discrepancy between present level of accomplishment and their ideal state of accomplishment. Studies have found that people with goals tend to outperform people without goals. However, the type of goal a person makes can determine if they can be successful or not. Goal difficulty explains that the more difficult a goal is, the more energy it provides the person. Goal specificity is important because it creates a specific, clearer plan on how a person should perform. A difficult, specific, goal enhances performance. Feedback is helpful in achieving a goal in two ways. If feedback shows performance is at or above goal level, satisfaction is felt and a new or more difficult goal is created. When feedback shows performance is below goal level, dissatisfaction is felt with leads to increased effort, persistence, attention, and strategic planning. Mental simulations are essential in goal achieving. Focusing on outcomes doesn’t produce productive behavior but focusing on planning and problem solving, does. Implementation intentions also play an important role in goal striving. Making a plan that includes how a goal will be achieved will better set a person up for success.
The most surprising thing I learned from this chapter is that when a goal is more difficult, it exerts more energy to the performer. I found this surprising and interesting because I didn’t quite ever realize that. It makes sense though, with what the previous chapters explained regarding competence and performance. If an optimal challenge is presented and positive feedback is provided, competence is satisfied in our psychological need. When we show achievement in a goal, either a master or performance, we are showing competence that we can do something well.
This chapter has really helped tie together other chapters and helped me to better understand motivational properties in plans and goals. This chapter helps motivate me toward my goals by first, creating a goal in a specific area that I find a discrepancy in my present state. I know that my goals should be difficult and precise in better to focus my direction and provide optimal effort. Knowing that goals take time and recognizing and accepting that limitations and difficulties will most likely take place will better help me to strategically plan a way to best achieve a goal.
Terms: Ideal State, Present State, Discrepancy, Incongruity, TOTE, Discrepancy Reduction, Discrepancy Creation, Mental Simulations, Implementation Intentions, Achievement, Competence, Feedback
This chapter looks at goals and how you can reach them. The first step you have for the goal in the TOTE model is to make a plan. Then with a plan, you must test and then operate and repeat until a goal is reached and they can exit. Corrective motivation can occur and behavior is changed, the plan is changed or the plan isn’t followed anymore. Psychologists look at people’s present state versus their ideal state. The chapter then looks at discrepancies. Discrepancy reduction is receiving feedback for your performance so that’s why you do it. Discrepancy creation is when someone sets a goal and tries to do something without being asked. People who set goals usually do better than those who don’t set goals. A goal needs to be difficult and specific to be a good goal. Specific goals make it easier to plan. Feedback is essential for a goal to be followed. The goal has to be accepted by the person for it to succeed. Long term goals are easier to follow if you break it up into short term goals. Short term goals leave room for feedback and satisfy the need for competence so there is more intrinsic motivation. Part of actually achieving a goal is getting started. Once started, you have to be persistent. To set a goal, first you have to figure out what you want to achieve. Then you must make sure the goal is difficult enough that you’ll work to achieve it. Then you must make the goal specific and last you must make sure there is feedback.
I found it surprising that a goal needs to be difficult for it to be accomplished. I thought that if a goal was easy it would be easier for someone to try but instead there is more persistence when it’s difficult.
This chapter makes it so I can see what kind of goal I need to make that I can succeed at. The goal needs to be specific and something I can receive feedback for. It also needs to have some short term outcomes. It also needs to be something difficult. I also now realize that it’s better that I make a goal and then I will achieve more.
Terms used: TOTE model, goal, corrective motivation, present state, ideal state, discrepancy reduction, discrepancy creation, competence, feedback, long term goals, short term goals, intrinsic motivation
Chapter 8 discusses setting goals and working towards them. One of the first things the chapter mentions is the concept of planning. Everyone has an ideal state of something and a present state of something. The difference between the present state and the ideal state is referred to as incongruity. Incongruity motivates people to work towards that ideal state. This can be seen in the TOTE model, in which the person first tests the present state against the ideal state, and then operates a plan of action. The person then tests the present against the ideal again, and if the goal has been reached, the last step is to exit the plan. Incongruity can also be called discrepancy, and there are two kinds of discrepancies. Discrepancy reduction is based on feedback we receive that underlies plans and corrective motivation. Discrepancy creation is when the person looks forward and sets a future goal. The chapter continues to discuss setting goals, goal difficulty, and goal specificity. Goals that are both difficult and specific increase performance the most efficiently because they require a significant amount of energy and they also direct that energy. The goal also needs to be accepted. Then the chapter goes into detail about implementing and striving towards a goal. Putting all of these strategies together will create an effective goal to work towards.
I think the one thing I found the most surprising when reading this chapter comes from the sections about making a goal difficult and specific. I knew that in order for a goal to be effective, it should be specific, because then you have something specific to work towards. However, it was interesting to learn that difficult goals actually increase performance. People may think they’re just going to set a small goal, and sometimes that’s good to start out with, but actually setting a harder-to-reach and more difficult goal is best because it motivates the person more and requires more effort.
A lot of things in this class have taught me important aspects of motivation and this chapter in particular helped me to look at and identify the types of goals in my life. I know that in order to make a good goal that is most likely to show results, the goal should be difficult and specific, so I will keep that in mind when making future goals. Feedback is also important in making goals, so it is important to know whether or not the goals are yielding any results or not, which is something I don’t always do when setting goals. Overall I think my goal-setting skills have definitely increased, and I think now when I set goals for myself, I will be more successful in achieving those goals.
Terms: goals, plans, present state, ideal state, motivation, incongruity, discrepancy, difficulty, specificity, feedback, corrective motivation, performance.
The cognitive perspective on motivation focuses on mental processes as causal determinants to actions. There are four elements in the cognitive action sequence, those include, plans, goals, implementation intentions, and mental simulations. Plans and goals rely on discrepancy as their driving motivational force to action. Cognitive discrepancies explain motivation by highlighting how mismatches between the person’s present state versus their ideal state energize and direct action. Two types of discrepancies exist; the first being discrepancy reduction which captures the essence of plans and corrective motivation. The second type of discrepancy is discrepancy creation which captures the essence of goals and the goal-setting process. When a present-state-versus-ideal-state mismatch exists, incongruity or discrepancy produces a general corrective motivation that gives rise to a plan-directed behavior that is capable of reducing the discrepancy.
Goals that are both difficult and specific generally improve performance. Difficult goals mobilize effort and increase persistence, while specific goals direct attention and promote strategic planning. There are two conditions that are necessary before goals will enhance performance and those are feedback and goal acceptance. Another important aspect of goal setting is implementation intentions, that specify a plan as to when, where, how, and for how long one is to act. People who set implementation intentions in advance of their goal-directed action are more likely to attain their goals than are people who do not set implementation intentions.
There are four steps that are involved in the goal-setting process and those are to specify the objective, set goal difficulty, clarify goal specificity, and decide when performance will be assessed. The last four steps involve the sequential steps within the goal-striving process and those are check on goal acceptance, discuss goal attainment strategies, formulate implementation intentions, and provide performance feedback.
The thing I found most interesting was that focusing on the goal, actually interfered with attaining the goal. Many self help books tell you to focus on a goal, but that’s actually worse for you.
The knowledge from this chapter will help motivate myself toward goals, because now I actually know how to reach those goals. I need to first set a goal, and then make a plan on to when I will act on this plan, where I will act on it and for how long will I act on this goal. It’s really easy for people to make goals, like New Year’s resolutions, however most people know that those never actually work, because most people don’t sit down and figure out when, how, and for how long they will try and reach these goals. For example, I know that I want to finish my degree, so I have told myself and made a plan that I will finish my degree by May of 2014. I now know that making implementation intentions are extremely important to starting, persisting and finishing a goal, so from now on, I will make sure I start to do that. I also know that making short-term goals and receiving rewards from those is a good process for a long-term goal. My example for getting my degree is another great example. In every class that I take, I have tests, and every time that I get a good test grade back, it’s positive reinforcement and keeps me going until I complete the class and I can move on in my studies. I have actually found this chapter to be the most informative for me and give me a clear understanding as to how I can make, persist, and achieve the goals I would like to achieve.
ME Terms- Plans, corrective motivation, discrepancy, discrepancy reduction, discrepancy creation, feedback, long-term goal setting, goal pursuit: getting started, goal pursuit: persisting and finishing, implementation intentions
Chapter Eight details the complex world of goals. Why do we set them, how, and in what ways can we most effectively achieve our goals? In order to form a goal, there is some sort of discrepancy in our present state and ideal state. In order to bridge this gap, we must plan and execute. Discrepancy creation involves the proactive nature of jump-starting the goal-setting process because of internal forces. Corrective motivation leads to plan-directed behavior when we aspire to be in an ideal state rather than our present state. We have a much better chance at attaining our goals if they are both specific and and difficult. In addition, the goal must provide feedback and we must internalize or accept it if from external sources. Once set, we must formulate implementation intentions to verify when, where, how and how often we will work toward this goal in order to limit the negative effect of distractions. There is an eight-step goal setting program that the authors feel will give the best opportunity to attain difficult, specific goals.
I thought it was surprising that goal setting works best with relatively uninteresting activities requiring a straightforward procedure. This makes logical sense, but we are constantly taught to set goals in the most important aspects of our lives. It doesn't seem right that setting goals for aspects of our lives we have a vested interest in is ineffective relative to goal setting in monotonous or uninteresting areas of our life.
This chapter provides highly pertinent insight into the most effective way to formulate, implement, and persist from our present state to the ideal state we desire. Understanding why it is we even create goals helps to train our mind to conscientiously recognize the discrepancy in our discrepancies. Once I have identified a discrepancy, I now know how to formulate and most effectively act on a goal. The best chance of putting forth optimal, persistent effort is to create a difficult, specific goal. Once this goal has been created, I then need to make sure I have some way of garnering feedback. Also, I must internalize this goal if it is from an external force to make myself accountable. For example, right now I am working toward the goal of getting a sales job with a highly reputable company making above $45,000. This is a specific, difficult goal that is attainable. I will be able to receive feedback based on the reputation of the company I receive an offer from and the salary they offer. I have internalized this goal from the beginning of the school year doing everything in my power to make this happen such as joining various sales competitions, taking a sales class that is not required for my accounting major, and proactively seeking out top companies. I have also set implementation intentions such as practicing for my sales competitions three times a week (Monday, Wednesday and Sunday) at noon, noon, and 3 PM respectively. Each time I study/practice/prepare for at least an hour with the flexibility to increase the time allotment if there is more work to be done. I understand there will be distractions, but I have addressed and disregarded everything happening externally during these preparation times.
ME Terms: Goals, present state, ideal state, discrepancy, implementation intention, discrepancy creation, corrective motivation, feedback
Chapter 8 talks about how to set a goal and how to strive for it. At first I was like, well is it not the same thing, well no it is not. First you set the goal. That is to say you take something now or PRESENT STATE and set something new IDEAL STATE. Example being, I currently bench 350 lbs for a one rep max. I wish to bench 400 for a one rep max. The difference is called DISCREPANCY and there are two types. One is DISCREPANCY REDUCTION and that is using a feedback system such as someone telling them, like with the bench, I need to have 400 to qualify for some sort of competition, whereas DISCREPANCY CREATION is my own decision on bettering myself. Then there are different drivers, or levels of difficulty when it comes to goals which also translates into the performance of completion of the goals.
Now lets say I bench 350, I could only strive for 360 and possibly get higher or push myself to do 400 and possibly out do that. The 400 is more difficult thus forcing me to work harder and in the end will most likely accomplish quicker.
What was the most surprising thing you learned?
The TOTE MODEL wasn’t so much surprising is simplifying something we already do, trial and error put into a model.
How does the knowledge from this chapter help you to motivate yourself towards desired goals?
If I wish to do something big, try harder and shoot for something bigger. There are always baby steps and or just steps in between your PRESENT STATE and your goal or IDEAL STATE. If I only make my goal one of those steps just to achieve it and say I did, then did I really achieve anything if I long for a bigger tougher goal and am just taking it in stride?
Terms: Tote Model, Present State, Ideal States, Discrepancy reductions and creation.
Chapter 8 takes a look at setting and achieving goals, as well as the process to do so most effectively. It begins by forming a plan. People have knowledge of both their present and ideal states, and when they perceive a difference, they initiate behavior to change their present state into their ideal state. One way this is achieved is explained in the TOTE model, a diagram that demonstrates the process from perceiving an incongruent state to taking steps to resolve the dissonance. As individuals, we are motivated towards goals because of this discrepancy. Discrepancy reduction occurs when the environment brings a standard of excellence to our attention, and causes us to desire a change. This results in corrective motivation, which is essentially “reactive” goal setting. Discrepancy creation is brought about by the individual looks forward and proactively sets a goal they wish to achieve. This results in truly motivated goal setting.
One thing I found surprising was found when I looked into my own goal setting behavior. In the section on goal-striving, it discussed how you should focus on the process to achieving a goal, rather than the outcome. Logically, it makes sense that you should focus on how you mean to achieve a goal instead of the benefits upon achieving. Many people (including myself) set goals and set focus on the end result and have no clear-cut path to actually completing the goal. Thinking out and clearly defining the process you must complete in order to achieve your goal is extremely beneficial.
This chapter has helped me to realize that my previous methods of goal-setting were not nearly as effective as they could be. For example, earlier in the year I decided that I wanted to achieve a goal of “getting in shape.” It was poorly defined, and I had no plan of action on how to achieve that goal. Since then, I have created a schedule that shows me which days I will exercise and the exact time of which I will do so. Additionally, I have decided an exact number of miles that I want to be able to run by the time summer begins. Having a plan makes achieving goals much easier, as I have a map for how to achieve my goal, and I will know for-certain when I have hit that mark.
Terms:Plan, present/ideal state, TOTE model, discrepancy reduction, corrective motivation, discrepancy creation, goal setting
In Chapter 8 we learn about the motivational significance of four elements; plans, goals, implementation intentions, and mental simulations. Plans and goals both rely on discrepancy as the driving motivational force that then is put into action. There are two types of discrepancy that exist; discrepancy reductions and discrepancy creation. Discrepancy reduction captures the essence of plans and corrective motivation whereas discrepancy creation captures the essence of goals and the goal seeking process. People are readily aware of their environments and actions, they also have the tendency to imagine fantasies of different environments and actions, when these two things are intertwined and able to be implemented the present state versus ideal state match exists. Goals are the objectives that people strive to accomplish. Some goals are difficult, some are specific in nature, and some are used to improve performance as they do so by producing motivational effects.
One of the most surprising things that I learned from Chapter 8 was the corrective motivation part of the plan to action sequence that is discussed in the book. This sequence “portrays individuals as detecting present-ideal inconsistencies, generating a plan to eliminate the incongruity, instigating plan-regulated behavior, and monitoring feedback as the extent of any remaining present-ideal incongruity.” Researchers Campion & Lord as well as Carver & Scheier note in the book that plans are never static or unchangeable. They say that changes to plans are likely to occur and undergo modifications. Corrective motivation activates the process of decision making in which the individual considers many different possible ways for reducing the present-ideal incongruity.
This chapter has helped me understand the motivation it takes to complete certain goals. I learned about the very detailed process of creating goals and following through with completing the goals. It is important to note that when you are in the process of effectively trying to complete a goal it is crucial that the individual notices and recognizes the difficulty and specificity of the goal at hand. Knowing and realizing the fact that goals take time and effort as well as motivation to complete is a key fact in understanding the process of goal setting, goal striving, and goal completion.
TERMS: goal setting, goal striving, discrepancy reduction, discrepancy creation, corrective motivation,
Chapter 8 is about goals and plans. In reaching a goal one should use the TOTE model. The TOTE model involves a person first testing the present state against their ideal state then making a plan to minimize the difference between the two. This continues until the goal set has been reached. There are two kinds of discrepancies between the two states. Discrepancy Reduction is about the feedback we receive that underlies plans and corrective motivation. Discrepancy Creation is when a person looks to the future and makes goals. The difficulty and specificity of a goal increase performance because they require a significant amount of energy and they direct energy.
I found it surprising that a goal should be difficult in order to be successful. I assumed that easy goals are easier to complete. People are always saying that you should set low goals when trying to lose weight. But this might tap into goal specificity.
This chapter has helped me understand why I am so motivated to achieve my goals. Because they are difficult. The difficulty is motivating me to achieve my goals along with the intrinsic motivation I have that led to me developing my career goals. I also need to give myself feedback and allow the feedback of others in order to recognize where I am on my goal path.
Terms: TOTE model, present state, ideal state, discrepancy reduction, discrepancy creation, goal specificity, goal difficulty, intrinsically motivated
Read chapter 8. Summarize the chapter
Chapter 8 discusses the importance of goal setting and the cognitive study of motivation. Throughout this chapter I learned about the action sequences which are the plans, goals implementation intentions and mental stimulations. This chapter introduced me to the TOTE model which stands for test, operate, test and exit. The first stage in the model is test in which you compare present state with ideal state. Your present state is the things or goals that are currently in your life and the ideal state is the ideal goal/situation that you would rather be in. By comparing both you realize what you need to change or fix for it to be ideal for you. Second stage in the model is Operate, act on environment to realize ideal state. Third is test again which than you compare present state with ideal state and then exit which is when your present state becomes your ideal state. This is when the cognitive study comes into play and you begin to “plan”. Plans are made when you’re not satisfied with something and you plan a particular method or way to fix the situation. This is when goals come in to place, a goal can be anything a particular individual wants to change or accomplish.
When choosing a goal make sure your goal isn’t too easy but doesn’t challenge you too much and makes it impossible to accomplish. When trying to accomplish a goal two things are important and that’s feedback and goal acceptance. Feedback is needed because every goal needs feedback, which is needed to help show when you are falling short from desired goal. Goal acceptance is needed to provide performance reports such if you’re doing good or poorly in your current goal. Goal acceptance is important when goal setting takes place.
What was the most surprising thing you learned? How does the knowledge from this chapter help you to motivate yourself towards desired goals?
I don’t think a lot of what I read in this chapter surprised me because we have been discussing motivation and goals all semester. I think this chapter made me more aware of how and why I should set goals, and taught me how to properly do so.
Chapter eight taught me how to properly pick a goal and how to finish my goal, with the TOTE model I am more aware of the things I need to do to make sure my goal and or goals are achieved. For examples when I set out goals I set out time limits for my goals and what I want to accomplish but while reading this chapter I realized that some of my goals are too easy and or too broad. When being specific makes goal setting and goal acceptance easier and that’s what I plan on trying to accomplish after reading this chapter.
Provide a list of terms at the end of your post that you used from the chapter.
TOTE model, Cognitive, motivation, plan, goals, feedback and goal acceptance
The chapter starts by describing what types of situations and cognitions lead one to create a plan, what cognitions/situations can lead one to revise a plan. The chapter then delineates the differences between discrepancy reduction, discrepancy creation and goal performance discrepancy. How goals motivate behavior is discussed as well. The text says and explains how those with goals perform better on tasks than those without goals, effort given to accomplishing a goal is in proportion to how difficult it is and less ambiguous goals generally serve to inform an individual of what must be done in order to accomplish the goal. The chapter does clarify that not all goals enhance performance but instead only the goals that are specific and difficult enhance performance and that other variables such as ability can influence a person’s performance.
According to the textbook, other variables are necessary for reaching a goal in addition to specificity and difficulty. One of these variables is feedback. Without this, an individual has no way to keep track of their progress towards achieving a goal. Another crucial factor is goal acceptance or whether or not a person accepts a goal and with respect to imposed goals the text explains the importance of perceived difficulty of goal, participation in the goal setting process, credibility of the person assigning the goal and extrinsic incentives.
The chapter goes on to list limitations of goal setting. It explains that setting goals doesn’t necessarily increase motivation but instead performance, often works best for straightforward tasks and has the potential to undermine a person’s intrinsic motivation. It also explains how certain aspects of goal setting can change depending on the goal proximity. Long-term goals are also described as being more complex and a flow chart on pg 220 illustrates this. The final section of the chapter describes what impacts our motivation to move towards successfully accomplishing a goal such as mental simulation, implementation intentions, beginning behavior towards achieving a goal and persistence/finishing our plans to achieve a goal.
The most surprising thing I learned from reading the chapter was that imagining the process required to achieve the desired goal promotes goal striving behavior. I thought it made since that simply imagining success did not produce goal directed behavior but I did not expect that process simulation would be as important as it is with respect to goal accomplishment.
In order to motivate myself to accomplish my goals I now know that I should seek out feedback so I know if I am succeeding or if I need to change plans or behavior, imagine the processes by which I will accomplish a goal as much as I already do and make use of implementation intentions in order to finish goals/tasks more often.
Terms: Cognition, plan, discrepancy reduction, discrepancy creation, goal, goal specificity, goal difficulty, feedback, goal acceptance, imposed goal, motivation, performance, intrinsic motivation, long-term goal, mental simulation, implementation intentions, persistence, extrinsic incentives, goal proximity
Read chapter 8. Summarize the chapter.
Chapter 8 can be broken into 4 sections; plans, goals, implementation incentives, and mental simulations. Plans arise from a person’s ideal state. In other words people make plans for the way they picture things should be, instead of how they actually are. An example is I see myself ideally weighing 155, instead of what I actually weigh, 180. When my ideal doesn’t match my actual I suffer from incongruity, and I make plans to remove the incongruity. The cognitive mechanism used to explain how plan energize and direct behavior is called TOTE (test-operate-test-exit). The first test is comparing actual state to ideal state. If there is incongruity, then a person will move on to operate. This is when a person acts on the environment in order to reach this ideal state. Then the test happens again. If there is incongruity, the operate stage happens again, but if the ideal state matched your current state the person exits the behaviors. This mechanism is used to explain short term, present states, but can be used for long term goals. Discrepancy between ideal and actual is what drives motivation.
A goal is whatever and individual is striving to accomplish. Ideal level of accomplishment a person has is their goal. In general people with goals outperform those who do not have a goal. Goals difficulty refers to how much effort it takes to reach and goal and goal specify refers to how clearly a person understands what they need to do in order to achieve the goal. Because having a goal doesn’t keep a person motivated all the way till the end in long term cases, implementation incentives are needed to keep interest. This will help them avoid distractions from their goal. Mental stimulation is all about a person focusing how to achieve a goal instead of the goal itself. When doing so people were more likely to achieve their goals. Visualizing yourself doing what you need to reach your goal, helps to keep you motivated because you can see yourself doing it.
What was the most surprising thing you learned?
I found surprising that not all goals enhance performance, but only difficult and specific goals do. I would have thought a goal that was too hard would be a bad thing. I know when I try something out of my league, I am motivated to start out, but lose motivation as I realize how in over my head I am.
How does the knowledge from this chapter help you to motivate yourself towards desired goals?
This chapter helped me realize I need to make smaller, more specific goals. My goal is to lose weight and I always focus on the end goal instead of making a bunch of small goals. I really should make a weekly goal, and evaluate my progress in small increments. That way if something I am doing isn’t helping, I will know to change the behavior sooner than later using the feedback from my efforts. I focus too much on the end goal of losing 25 lbs. and what I will do to reward myself when I do it. This chapter seems to think I should make smaller goals, and focus on how to lose the weight, not just focusing on what I will do when I lose it.
Provide a list of terms at the end of your post that you used from the chapter.
Incongruity, plans, goals, implementation incentives, and mental simulations, cognitive mechanism, TOTE, feedback
Chapter 8 is the first chapter in Cognition Processes; covering goal setting and striving. The cognitive study of motivation involves a cognition – action sequence involving plans. goals, implementation intentions and mental simulations. People have an ideal state which they are able to imagine or create, while they also acknowledge one's present state as well. Any discrepancy between the two causes motivational tendencies to try to remove the discrepancy. This creates a “plan” of action which can in turn cause the individual to develop a goal. The discrepancy gives the “plan” energy and fuels it to be accomplished. A mechanism by which plans alter behavior is known as TOTE (test-operate-test-exit). However, some argue that plan-making is more of a corrective model involving testing multiple plans to create one which best fits with both the ideal and present states. There are two types of discrepancy, reduction and creation. Discrepancy reduction refers to a change after the ideal and present states have acquired the discrepancy. Meanwhile, discrepancy creation involves looking forward on improving one's current state to avoid future discrepancies. In order to accomplish a goal it must not be too difficult, the individual should participate in the goal-setting process, and offer incentives. The best goals are accomplished in stages of miniature goals to keep feeding the process. Mental simulations of the process in accomplishing a goal can be a great tool in keeping oneself focused and productive. Implementation intentions is just a fancy word for a plan to accomplish a goal-directed behavior.
The most surprising thing I learned was that it was more effective to envision the process leading up to a goal, rather than the goal itself. I had always thought that “keeping your eyes on the prize” was the way to go... not the steps in-between.
I now know that if I want to accomplish a goal that I should set up a plan involving many baby-steps to get it accomplished. I need to have little things in my plan that are easier to accomplish to continually keep myself motivated by keeping my behaviors on track.
Cognition. Goal. Cognition – Action Sequence. Plans. Implementation intentions. Mental Simulations. Ideal State. Present State. Motivation. Corrective Model. TOTE. Discrepancy Creation. Discrepancy Reduction. Goals. Incentives. Goal-directed behavior.
Summarize the chapter.
Chapter 8 discussed goal setting and what helps in motivating people towards accomplishing their goals. There are many factors that go into creating a goal. First, there needs to be some apparent incongruity between the present and ideal states of being. This incongruity in turn creates enough discomfort that a person will formulate and act on plans in order to remove this inconsistency. Once a plan is established and a goal is set, it is important to receive positive and meaningful feedback in order to turn this goal setting into performance. However, in order for a person to fully accept a goal, four factors must be in place: 1) the imposed goal must have some acceptable perceived level of difficulty, 2) the person must take part in the goal setting process, 3) the person assigning the goal must have some degree of credibility, and 4) extrinsic incentives may be in place. It is clear that there is a step-by-step path that occurs in the goal setting process. The steps are as follows: 1) Specify the objective to be accomplished, 2) define goal difficulty, 3) clarify goal specificity, 4) specify the time-span when performance will be assessed. The goal-striving process follows up with these steps: 5) Check on goal acceptance, 6) discuss goal-attainment strategies, 7) create implementation intentions and, 8) provide performance feedback. And so, as I have seen in this chapter, there is a lot more that goes into the goal making and striving process other than setting a goal and doing it.
What was the most surprising thing you learned?
It is hard for me to pick something from this chapter that really surprised me; I felt the content was pretty self-explanatory. However, if I were to choose something I would say the section describing goal-performance discrepancy was interesting. I liked that it explained that those who actually set goals or have goals set for themselves perform better than those who do not have any goals. To me, this shows how important it is to have goals placed in our lives. Without them, what is it that we have to strive and better ourselves for? I also found that when the chapter described how difficult goals stimulate more effort to be very accurate. I know that from my point of view, if I have a goal in mind that I know will be generally more difficult than others I have in place, I find myself actually wanting to work harder towards that goal.
How does the knowledge from this chapter help you to motivate yourself towards desired goals?
I feel the content in this chapter gave me a good amount of knowledge in how I perceive the goal making process. For me, the process appears to happen instantaneously when I decide I want to pursue something and I don’t really plan out the steps I’m going to take towards achieving that goal. However, I realize now that I truly have to think about the goal that I want to set and how I will go about accomplishing it.
Terms: goal setting, plans, feedback, performance, goal acceptance, goal setting process, goal striving process, goal-performance discrepancy
This chapter discusses the motivation behind goals. The process of planning, setting, and achieving goals is a quite complicated. All these processes involve cognitive functions. The first step in the goal process is to plan a goal. The goals arise from a person's "ideal state"- they imagine the person they want to be in the future. They compare that ideal self to their present self, which typically results in a form of cognitive dissonance. This discrepancy between the ideal self and the current self inclines the person toward reaching the ideal self, beginning the motivational process of planning a goal. The cognitive dissonance between the present self and the ideal self, coupled with a plan, motivates the person to achieve that goal. The TOTE (test-operate-test-exit) process then begins. The person tests their current state, operates achieve a goal, and tests again. If their goal is not met at that point, they reoperate and retest until they have achieved that goal. After that, they exit that process.
People with goals tend to outperform those who do not have goals. However, it is important that these goals are well are the right kind of goals. The goals mustn't so difficult that they are impossible to accomplish, however, goals high in difficulty stimulate high effort, which leads to results. If a goal is not very difficult, it does not stimulate the same kind of effort. Specificity is also important. If the person is not specific about his goal setting, his direction will be lost. He will be unsure when his goal is met and will lack measurable results. A good goal thus requires an objective, defined difficulty and specificity, and an opportunity for feedback so the person knows where he stands in relationship to his goal.
The most surprising thing for me was how much there is to learn about goal setting. I'm not surprised that people who make goals are more successful, just because one would think that these are the people who are generally more motivated. However, we are never taught to think about the difficulty and specifics of the goals we make. This has a huge impact- if people don't make the right kind of goals, they are less likely to achieve them. If they don't achieve their goals, they're less likely to make more goals for themselves in the future. This can lead to low self worth and depression.
Cognition, motivation, plan, goal , stimulation, ideal state, present state, TOTE model, incentives, discrepancy, discrepancy reduction, feedback
Summarize the chapter.
This chapter focused on goal setting and striving. It began by stating how plans are formed. A person makes plans based on discrepancies they see between their present and ideal states. If the discrepancies are severe enough a person may make a plan to remove the incongruity and achieve the ideal state. The plan for action provides direction. The cognitive mechanism TOTE was presented which basically explained that people go through a trial and error (tests and operations) process when trying to reach the ideal state and once it is reached they end the cyclical process (exit). Corrective motivation involves acknowledging present- ideal discrepancies, making plans to eliminate the discrepancies, carrying out the plan, and monitoring progress through feedback. There are two main types of discrepancy: discrepancy reduction and discrepancy creation. The chapter then talked about goals. A goal is whatever a person is trying to accomplish. Goal setting involves goal difficulty and specificity. In general more difficult goals are better than easy goals because difficult goals energize a person providing them with greater levels of effort and persistence. Goal specificity refers to how clear and precise a person’s goal is. More specific goals also lead to greater accomplishment because they direct behavior and attention more than vague goals do. Feedback is also crucial in making effective goals. Feedback allows people to monitor their progress which then helps decide subsequent courses of action. Satisfaction contributes to the discrepancy-creating process whereas dissatisfaction contributes favorably to th discrepancy-reducing process. Another aspect of this chapter was goal acceptance. It consists of four main factors: perceived difficulty of goal, participation in goal setting process, credibility of the person assigning the goal, and extrinsic incentives. Goal acceptance is inversely proportional to goal difficulty. Easy goals are usually easier to be accepted. People also have a greater tendency to reject goals forced on them or ones they didn’t help make. Acceptance also depends on how knowledgeable the goal setter is. Extrinsic incentives are also proportional to goal acceptance with greater incentives resulting in greater goal acceptance. The chapter also briefly mentioned three pitfalls to goal setting. The goal proximity also has an effect on achievement. Short term goals are more likely to be met and allow for more feedback which is helpful to a person. Long term goals involve intrinsic motivation being a main driving force of action. Implementation intentions specify when, where, how, and for how long a person should act to achieve their goals. They also have an effect on how easily a person starts, persists, and finishes a task especially when they are interrupted.
What was the most surprising thing you learned?
The most surprising thing I learned from this chapter was that in most situations harder goals lead to greater achievement. Difficult goals apparently energize people and they accomplish more. That is not true for me personally. Difficult goals just scare me away and discourage me to the point of giving up.
How does the knowledge from this chapter help you to motivate yourself towards desired goals?
After reading this chapter I learned I need to set small, short term goals to help me reach my long term goals. Short term goals in this situation would be a plan to achieve my long term goals.
Terms: Implementation intentions, present and ideal states, goal specificity, goal difficulty, TOTE, corrective motivation, discrepancy reduction and discrepancy creation, goal, perceived difficulty of goal, participation in goal setting process, credibility of the person assigning the goal, extrinsic incentives
Chapter 8 discusses plans, goal setting, and goal striving. The cognitive study of motivation deals with the cognitionaction cycle and the motivational importance of plans, goals, implementation intentions, and mental simulations. Plans and goal directly deal with discrepancy as their pushing motivational force to action. Two of the types of discrepancies are discrepancy reduction and discrepancy creation. Discrepancy reduction grasps the element of plans and corrective motivation. Discrepancy creation grasps the element of goals and the goal-setting process. Although people are conscious of their present state, they also visualize ideal states for their present behaviors, environments, and events in their lives. When there is a discrepancy in a person’s life they generally devise a plan to develop their present behavior to its ideal otherwise they rework the plan to reverse the ideal state down to something like the present state. Goals are what people strive for. Difficult goals prepare efforts and increase persistence and specific goals direct attention and advertise strategic planning. Feedback and goal acceptance are two essential conditions before goals are to be set. Once a goal has been set, that doesn’t mean it will be successful. Starting a goal can be tricky and lack motivation at the beginning due to distractions or interruptions. Creating implementation intentions can help a person establish the when, where, how, and for how long the goal is. There are 8 steps in a goal-setting process discussed in the chapter that uses these fundamentals to guide the goal into action.
I’d say the test-operate-test-exit (TOTE) model was the most interesting thing that I read in this chapter. Though it wasn’t all that surprising, it was very relatable. I never thought about how I make plans every minute of every day and it reflects on not only what happens in my life, but those around me as well. Although some things like the comparison of friends who are getting married don’t affect me as much as other events involved in their lives. I actually decided to go abroad because I had friends who had done that or did Camp Adventure and immediately after hearing about it, my mind started planning how I was going to be able to do this and all the details along with it.
After reading this chapter I realized a lot about goal setting and how to motivate myself in order to accomplish the goals I set. I enjoyed the table on the steps of effective goal setting because I like writing things down that I need to get done and I think that’s a great way to start. First specifying the goal/objective and then defining the difficulty along with clarifying the goal. Figuring out the time to achieve the goal is always a tough one for me because I tend to put things off and procrastinate when other things come up. The last four: check on goal acceptance, discuss goal-attainment strategies, create implementation intentions and provide performance feedback are things I don’t usually do because I like to be independent and not always get feedback on what I’m doing. One goal I have is to get into grad school which is a long-term goal. I’ve been doing a lot of clarifying on what all needs to be done before then like volunteering, getting my GPA up, finishing my undergrad, and completing the GRE. I know I need to get this all completed by close to the end of Fall 2013 which is approaching soon so there is the time-span of this goal. Goals that are long-term I feel have more detail and require much more persistence unlike short-term goals like setting up a time to meet with an advisor. Seeing as that goal is a one-time thing as opposed to constantly be working on studying for GRE and volunteering for my long-term goal, makes it more likely to be accomplished.
Terms: plans, goals, implementation intentions, discrepancy reduction, discrepancy creation, goal specific, difficult goals, feedback, corrective motivation, ideal state, present state, long-term goal, short-term goal, TOTE model
Chapter 8 is all about setting and striving for goals. This chapter looks at motivational agents in the cognition action sequence. The first is plans. People have mental representations of the ideal states of their behavior, environmental objects and events. Any mismatch between a present state and ones ideal state will create incongruity. This acts as the motivational ‘spring to action’. The plan becomes the means of organizing our behavior toward the pursuit of the ideal state. Corrective motivation is a large part of plans. This acts as a decision making process in which the individual considers different ways for reducing incongruity. Corrective motivation also involves emotion. When people progress toward their goal at their expected rate they feel little emotion, but when slower than expected it will bring about anxiety, frustration and sadness. A goal is whatever an individual is striving to accomplish. Usually people with goals outperform people that do not have goals. The more difficult the goal the more it energizes the person. Difficult goals energize the person and more specific goals direct them toward a particular course. Feedback of goals or knowledge of the results allow people to keep track of any progress toward the goal. Goal acceptance is critical when setting takes place. This is when the persons decides either to accept or reject the goal. There are 4 determining factors in whether the goal will be accepted or rejected. Perceived difficulty, participation in the goal setting process, credibility of the person assigning goal, and extrinsic incentives. Mental stimulations Mental stimulations are extremely important in goals. Just focusing on the goal itself fails as a motivational strategy. While focusing on how to accomplish the goal did create goal attainment. Implementing is finding solutions to problems to attain the goal
One thing that I thought was very interesting is mental stimulations. I thought the complete opposite. People always say focus on your goal and you will reach it. This explains how it can potentially damage the reaching of the goal. Focusing on the how to attain the goal such as steps to accomplish it will help you.
This information is extremely helpful when setting my own goals. It gives me more specific information and direction rather than some books telling you to just visualize your goal and you will attain it. I am more aware in the planning of a goal and to keep the goal high to keep my energized and specific. I also now understand how important feedback is to reaching a goal. This will help me help myself with my own feedback, but maybe have another outside person give me feedback as well to give me more knowledge.
Cognition, action sequence, correction motivation, goal, mental stimulations, implementing, feedback, acceptance,
This chapter is about having goals and taking the correct steps to reach those goals. One of the first steps to achieving a goal is to have a plan. The text discusses the fact that when someone is planning on how to reach their goal/s they look at their present state and then look at their ideal state. (This creates a state of incongruity that in turn motivates that person to get rid of that incongruity.) There are many other steps when planning and later reaching your goals. You need to make sure that your goal is difficult and specific, you’re able to receive feedback about your goal and you have to accept your goal for what it is. (Also if others are involved with your goal you should be ready to accept some criticism and also look at that criticism as constructive and not a personal attack.)
The most surprising part was the fact that setting a goal can be broken down into so many parts. The section that I found the most interesting and the most relatable was the section about long-term goal setting. According to the text most people who have long-term goals (Becoming a doctor or gymnast) will often give up on their goals because they don’t have enough positive reinforcements. I wasn’t surprised by this but it did remind me to surround myself with people who would be supportive.
Along with having people around me who will be supportive I will also take the information that I have learned and apply it to some of my new goals. (Breaking it down, difficult, specific, etc.)
Terms: Goal, Long-term goal, Feedback, Criticism, Goal Acceptance, Difficult, Specific Goals
This chapter focused on motivational agents: plans, goals, and implemental intentions. Everyone has their own ideal states of behavior. There is the ideal behavior (what a perfect golf swing is), ideal environmental object (what their ideal birthday gift is), and ideal event (the most ideal vacation spot). Even though there is the “ideal” behavior, there is also the “present” state of their behavior. So taking from the above examples; the present behavior would be what their golf swing looks like now, the current present, and the current vacation. When the two do not match up, individuals experience incongruity which has different motivational properties. In order to relieve those incongruities, people come up with a specific plan. It acts as a spring into action for the individual to achieve the ideal behaviors. The cognitive mechanism by which plans direct behavior is the test-operate-test-exit model. The test part of the formula simply compares the present state to the ideal state. The incongruity leads to the operate part: they are trying to change the behavior. The example in the book makes it easy to think about…if, in the morning, you do not like your hair (it is not ideal), you try to style it (operate). You then look in the mirror and see that you still do not like your hair (test) and you then re-style (operate). The process of test-operate can go on for a long time, until the incongruity is eliminated. Once there is no longer a mismatch, the individual exits the plan. There are 2 types of discrepancies (incongruity). The first is discrepancy reduction. These underlie plans and provide feedback about how well a person’s behavior or performance matches, or does not match with the ideal performance. The second type is discrepancy creation. This is based on “feed-forward” system. This is where the individual looks forward and tries to change the behavior. Goals are the next section of the motivational agents. Goals are simply something that a person is trying to accomplish. A very common one, especially in the beginning of the year, is weight loss. Similar to plans, goals also look at ways to reduce the discrepancies in present behavior and ideal behavior. Goals give us something to strive for. I know for myself, if I set a goal, I feel terrible if I do not achieve it. If a goal is more difficult, the person will be more energized. Implementation intentions are the third agents. A lot of times, people fail at goals because they do not develop specific action plans for how they want to attain their goals. It is important to think of very specific details on the action plan and have an idea of what will happen if environmental factors get in the way. If the goal is to get a 4.0 in a semester, the person needs to think about how they will get started on the behavior. A lot of times getting started is the most difficult part. They also need to persist despite difficulties that arise and other setbacks. Finally, they need to resume if an interruption occurs.
I found the section on goal specificity to be very interesting. Goal specificity is how clearly a goal informs the performer precisely what they are to do. In order to be effective, goals need to be specific. With the losing weight example, it is not enough just to say you want to lose weight this coming year. It is a lot easy and more achievable if you specify the amount of weight you want to lose and by when. That way it gives you a timeline to follow instead of simply left to your own devices. I also really enjoyed the section on mental simulations. In the study explained, the participants either focused on the goal they wished to attain, focused on how to attain the goal, or did not focus on anything in particular (which was the control group). When the participants focused on the goal, it interfered with the goal attainment. This surprised me to a certain extent. I do know that if you focus so much on something that it begins to cause stress, then that can be a problem. Focusing attention on the goal backfired in terms of motivation. Focusing on how to accomplish the goal did facilitate goal attainment.
Reading this chapter did get me thinking about my own goals that I have. I did know a lot about setting a goal through my health psychology class, but this added to that knowledge. I have a personal goal of losing 20 pounds. I know that in order accomplish this goal, I need to set specifics. I have mapped out how I want to go about losing weight, and so far it has worked. Getting started was the worst part, and I still lack motivation some days to go and work out. It is not good to get so fixated on the goal that it hinders your progress, and I try not to think too much about it. I am aware of what I want to accomplish, but I do not let it get in the way of my daily life. In terms of the T-O-T-E model, I am still in the test-operate phase. I am still not how I want to be weight wise, so I am still operating to fix that.
Terms: incongruity, test-operate-test-exit model, discrepancy, discrepancy reduction, discrepancy creation, goals, goal specificity, mental simulations, motivation
~Summary
Chapter eight discusses cognition aspect to motivation and the main points focused on were plans, goals, judgments, values, and self-concept. Chapter eight further explains the main reasons for cognitive motivation. Incongruity involves a person’s awareness of environment and wants to get from a real state to an ideal state. Ideal state is a major motivator, and planning is used to meet the ideal state. The Test-Operate-Test-Exit or also known as TOTE is the mechanism that drives people. This model demonstrates that comparing the real and ideal state takes place, and if the real state is close enough to the ideal then there is little motivation. The time that there would be motivation for TOTE is if the real state was not close enough to the ideal state then a plan would be advised to fix it. Discrepancy is actually what factors cause us to want to reach an ideal state, and incongruity was more about how one could go about getting to an ideal state. There were two types of discrepancy which were discrepancy reduction and discrepancy creation. Discrepancy reduction is focused on an environmental factor while discrepancy creation is focusing on a person setting many short or long term goals.
~What was most interesting?
What I believed to be the most interesting was the topic of criticism. The reason I believe that this was interesting because if you set a goal without any possibly of enhancing oneself it will not motivate a person per se. Also in criticism it discusses that goals should be used for things that are boring since these are the only activities that can have performance increases if a goal is applied.
~How is chapter 8 motivating me?
I have been trying to lose weight this spring semester. I was at a lower weight in fall semester but when going home for winter break I gained weight. When coming back to school I had no motivation to workout. I really did not know at first how I did it first semester until looking at the chapter it is a little more obvious why which I am not really accepting the goals that I made for myself.
Terms: Plans, goals, judgments, values, self-concept, cognition, motivation, real state, ideal state, TOTE, discrepancy, discrepancy creation, and discrepancy reduction
Summarize the chapter.
The chapter talks about mental processes of meeting goals. It talks about the action sequence and how it holds four parts; plans, goals, implementation intentions, and mental stimulations. Discrepancy is what drives one into doing what they do to reach their goal. There are two discrepancies; discrepancy reduction (feedback that affects one's actions) and discrepancy creation (setting goals in the future). The chapter discusses ideal states (mental representation of what something should be) and present states (what they have at the time). People take the present state and use a discrepancy to get to the ideal state. It then talks about goals and how they require feedback (being able to use this to evaluate their performance) and goal acceptance (accepting one's goal as their own).
What was the most surprising thing you learned?
The most surprising thing I learned was about the two types of discrepancy. Both are pretty basic ideas when it comes to goals and motivation but I enjoyed reading about them in the way the textbook explains it. It helped to understand why we (or I) sometimes do the things we (or I) do. I like being able to know this and apply it and see it in my life.
How does the knowledge from this chapter help you to motivate yourself towards desired goals?
This chapter helped me to attain goals buy looking at it to do it little steps to get to my ultimate goal. Reaching a longer, far off goal can be hard and become overwhelming, but if I look at it from a smaller perspective and tackle one thing at a time, it will help me reach my goal in the long run. By completing each little step first, it will also give me feedback (from how I did on completing the last step) and motivation ("I finished the last step, I can do this one too") to keep completing more and more steps to get to the end result.
ME terms: goals, action sequence, plans, implementation intentions, mental stimulations, discrepancy, discrepancy reduction, discrepancy creation, ideal state, present state, feedback, goal acceptance, motivation
Summarize the chapter.
Chapter eight is all about goals. The chapter describes in detail how to plan goals, performance, feedback, persistence, and so forth. The authors first describe the ideal state required for maintaining goals. There is usually a discrepancy between the present state of for the goal and an ideal state, one that the goal would require. Another important aspect of the goal is motivation and acceptance of the goal. The goal is virtually meaningless if the goal-setter isn’t motivated to accomplish the goal. The next step is to persist in the goal in order to finish it. The authors use a phrase called implementation intention in order to help persist in this goal.
What was the most surprising thing you learned?
Setting and accomplishing goals isn’t something too surprising. However, I would say that I am a little surprised that the authors made the distinction between difficult goals and specific goals. I think they could have easily either split goals into more and more defined categories or not make categories at all. What happens if the goal is difficult and specific? What’s the benefit of this categorization?
How does the knowledge from this chapter help you to motivate yourself towards desired goals?
This chapter didn’t necessarily provide me with motivation towards my goals. It did, however, provide me with a way to better organize, plan, and execute my goals. Goals can often be accomplished quicker and more accurately if these goals have these organized ways. For example, I have a goal of getting back into shape. On my own, I’m very unsuccessful in this goal. I need to find a way to better motivate myself, organize my goals, and seek feedback about my progress. With these elements backing me up, I should be able to become the fit, energetic person I once was in high school.
Terms used: Goals; motivation; persistence; feedback; performance;
Summary
Cognition includes four main areas to complete an action: plans, goals, implementing intentions and mental stimulations. Drive plays a large role in planning and goal making, these are called cognitive discrepancies. They give rise to reasoning why people do and do not make their ideal goals. Two discrepancies are important to acknowledge, reduction and creation. Discrepancy reduction focuses on correcting motivations, such as saying a 2.99 GPA is not enough and a 3.5 is necessary for a certain scholarship. Discrepancy creation focuses on looking forward personally going about a standard goal, such as raising $800 instead of the expected $500. We are attuned with our behavior and environment; we also see ideal situations for us to be in. When the current and ideal situations do not match up, a corrective motivation may induce plan-directed behavior which reduces this discrepancy. Corrective motivation is an emotion ridden process, those who cannot make the corrections at the pace they desire creates a negative emotion.
Goals are specific and difficult objectives people attempt to accomplish to improve one’s performance, this creates motivation. Since goals are difficult, results are not automatic and are challenging to begin. Intentions for goal-directed behavior may not conspire goal-directed actions. Eight steps may be followed for goal-setting performance: specifying the objective, set goal difficulty, clarifying goal specifically, decide when performance will be assessed, check goal acceptance, discuss goal attainment, form implementation intentions and provide performance feedback. Following these eight steps allows for an increased chance of following through with goal-directed actions.
Surprising
I found it surprising that all goals need to be difficult. I guess all of my “goals” are not really “goals”; perhaps they are better labeled as tasks.
Knowledge help motivation
The last part of this chapter has really opened my eyes to keeping my goals high and striving to accomplish them. I think it is definitely okay to set small attainable goals in order to reach a larger, more difficult goal. This allows me to keep goals as specific as possible in order to keep me on track. Maybe I should read this chapter every week that would keep my mind attentive to what I need to accomplish.
Terms: plans, goals, implementing intentions and mental stimulations; drive; Discrepancy reduction; Discrepancy creation; Corrective motivation; Goals; goal-directed behavior; goal-directed actions; goal-setting performance
Chapter Eight Summary
Ch. 8 is focused on “determination to action”, basically in common terms this means what it takes to accomplish a goal. There are four elements that go along with this, plans, goals, implementation intentions, and mental stimulations. Present state and ideal state are very important in motivation as we are constantly motivated to have our current/present state and ideal state match up. The book says that when our states don’t match up, this is called incongruity. In order to alleviate this incongruity
we develop goals and plans of action in order to find that ideal state. Those who are struggling to reach their goals and move towards an ideal state might experience frustration if they are progressing at a slower rate than they expected or planned on. In order for a goal to be effective it must be difficult and specific. It is also important that the goal is reasonable and measurable. The hardest part of reaching a goal is getting started and just setting a goal does not in any way guarantee a desirable outcome. The last section talks about an eight step process to help set goals, which are divided into two sections, the first four focused on setting the goal while the last four focus on striving for the goal.
A surprising thing…
I never thought about the fact that reaching a goal may take 8 steps to complete. Yet it makes sense that in order to make a change that the goal setting process might take some time to work out. With the incongruity concept it makes sense that we try to reconcile our states from a current state to an ideal state and that’s why we’re working towards a goal.
Knowledge helping to motivate towards a goal
I think that knowing that getting started is the hardest part might help me reach certain goals may help me get over that. I once read an article that if you are supposed to go to the gym to work out, and don’t want to go, you should get fully dressed, drive to the gym, and only THEN can you decide to not work out. Most people just go ahead with their workout since they’re already there. This represents just getting started as being the hardest part of a goal achieving process.
Terms
Determination, action, goal, plans, implementation, intentions, mental stimulations, present state, ideal state, motivation, incongruity, frustration, effective, reasonable, measurable, outcome, 8 step process, goal setting, goal achieving
Chapter 8 discusses a few motivational agents in the cognition/action sequence. It informs about plans, goals, implementation intentions, and mental simulations. The cognitive mental events energize and direct action in purposive ways. When an individual’s present state and ideal state are incongruent, a plan in made to remove the incongruity. The incongruity provides energy while the plan provides direction. Plans lead to the test-operate-test-exit (TOTE) model, but many plans end up bouncing between test-operate-test-operate, etc. Corrective motivation finds ways to reduce incongruity by changing the plan, changing the behavior, or withdrawing from the plan. Discrepancy has the core motivational properties. There are two types of discrepancies—discrepancy reduction and discrepancy creation. Discrepancy reduction corresponds to plan-based corrective motivation and is reactive, deficiency overcoming, and revolves around feedback while discrepancy creation corresponds to goal-setting motivation and is proactive, growth pursuing, and revolves around a “feed-forward” system. Goals with higher difficulty and more specificity enhance performance because they energize and direct the behavior or course of action. Feedback and goal acceptance also enhance performance. Feedback can tell oneself if there needs to be improvement or if the goal wasn’t challenging enough. Goal acceptance happens when and individual accepts the goals of another person as his/her own. To achieve goals, one must turn to formulating implementation intentions where they specify a plan as to when, where, how, and for how long one must act.
The most surprising thing I learned was a reason behind motivation is because one’s real-self and their ideal self are not the same. The incongruity creates an uncomfortable internal state and therefore the person will implement goals to try to match the real-self to the ideal-self. I can see how I am motivated to go to work because I see a poor college student, but I go to work to get closer to the ideal rich, graduate student.
The knowledge from this chapter helps me to motivate myself toward desired goals by knowing to formulate implementation intentions in order to accomplish my goals. I will be more successful if I specify where, when, how, and for how long I need to act in order to accomplish my goal.
Terms: motivational; cognition; plan; goals; implementation intentions; mental simulations; TOTE model; corrective motivation; discrepancy; discrepancy reduction; discrepancy creation; incongruity
Chapter 8 is about setting and attaining goals successfully. The first part of the chapter was about plans. We make plans when we see a difference or a discrepancy between the ideal situation and the current situation. Sometimes these plans include goals. When a person sets a goal, they are more likely to reach the ideal situation than a person who has no goals.
In setting a goal, the goal needs to be specific and difficult. Specificity gives direction, letting the person know exactly what steps need to be taken to accomplish the task. Difficult goals give energy to the person, increasing effort and persistence. If the goal is not difficult enough, they may be bored or not see the point in pursuing it.
It is important, though to consider goal acceptance. If the goal is set by one person for another, the goal must be internalized or accepted. This means the person has committed to the goal and plans to try to work for it. If a goal is too difficult, it will not be accepted. Other aspects that matter to goal acceptance are extrinsic incentives (rewards), credibility of the person assigning the goal, and the individual’s involvement in creating the goal.
Feedback is necessary for reaching a goal. A person needs to know how they are doing in order to assess whether they need to change their plan of action or not. The chapter also mentioned long term goals, and stressed that they are no more or less productive than short term goals as long as the long term goal is really a series of short term goals.
In striving for a goal, one must focus their attention on how to accomplish the goal as well as set a specific plan of when and how the goal will be carried out. These specific action plans are called implementation intentions.
I found it very surprising that focusing attention on the goal itself actually decreases the likelihood of attaining that goal. I wonder if it has to do with anxiety or just that your attention is not directed at what you are doing, and therefore you do not do it as well.
Although I had not put much thought into this subject in the past, I have realized that I already do a lot of what this chapter explains. I certainly have found implementation intentions to be true. For example, if I want to leave the house and go to the gym and excersise or go to the lab to get some extra work done for a class, I know I need to set a time that I “need” to be there. If I do not set a time, I will either not go, or go with just enough time that I think I can get done what needs to be done before I rush off to work.
Terms: Goals, plans, discrepancy, specific, difficult, effort, persistence, goal acceptance, internalize, extrinsic incentives, feedback, long term goals, short term goals, implementation intentions
Goals are essentially first created when a person's current state does not match their ideal state. This incongruity between the two states is what motivates someone to make a change, until the two states match. There is then a process, called the TOTE model that people go through. They test, operate, test, exit (provided the first operate results in the diminishing of the incongruity). In the test stage, a person evaluates how different their current state is from their ideal state. If they find it to be different, they begin the operate stage where they do what they can in the environment to try and change their current state. After they make their attempt, they test again to see if they have reached their ideal state. If not, they once again look at their environment and decide what they can do to try and change the state. This can continue for quite a while, but once the ideal state has been achieved, they can begin the exit stage of the model, where they are no longer motivated because the incongruity is gone.
One place that people often go wrong in their goal and not being able to successfully reach that exit stage is at the very beginning, when they establish their goal. It is important to follow the 4 steps for the goal setting process. These include, specifying the objectives, defining the difficulty, clarifying the goal specificity, and specify the time-span when the performance will be assessed. The goal does need to be a little difficult so that you are motivated to achieve it, but it can't be so difficult that it is unrealistic. Also, the goal needs to be specific. A person needs to know exactly what they are trying to achieve. This helps in knowing how to assess performance along the way, as well as how and when the goal is actually achieved.
What I found most interesting, is how terrible I am at setting goals! That seems like a silly idea to me, because I am a pretty high achiever, but then I think about how many goals I have set and not followed through. Those goals weren't very specific, and if they were specific they were hard! I often try to change too much too fast. This really helped me see that in order to reach a big goal, it would be more helpful if I broke it down into smaller, more manageable goals and worked my way up instead of getting frustrated and quitting like I normally do! It's the same scenario with my long term and short term goals. A lot of my long term goals should have many short term goals set up along the way, and some of my short term goals are unrealistic to get done as fast as I want. I'm also terrible at assessing my progress of the goal as I go.
Terms: goals, TOTE model, short term goals, long term goals, specific, difficult, incongruity, ideal state, present state, motivation, assessing progress, goal setting process
Summarize the chapter.
This chapter covered goals specifically setting them and working towards them. The four significant elements in the in the cognition action sequence: planning, goals, implementation intentions and mental simulations. These four elements where the bulk of the chapter.
Planning can happen through the test-operate-test- exit (TOTE) model, in which you assess, act based on you assessment and then assess again and then if satisfied you end the process. If you are not satisfied this model can continue on.
Discrepancy plays a role in this process, as it is perceiving the current state and what the ideal or desired state would be. There are two types of discrepancy: discrepancy reduction and discrepancy creations. Discrepancy reduction focuses on plans and corrective motivation, while discrepancy creations focuses on goals and the goal setting process. Discrepancy can also be referred to as incongruity.
Goals are things people wish to accomplish. The best goals are difficult and specific – these generally facilitate the best performance. For goals to enhance performance feedback and goal acceptance are needed. Feedback is getting information on how one is doing, whether it is from a scale or a coach. Goal acceptance is accepting a goals for oneself set by another person.
Implementation intentions are setting plans in advance as to a when, where, how and for what amount of time to act. This helps people start, finish and resume their actions. It acts as a buffer of sorts for helping people overcome obstacles that they will inevitably face in their journey to reach a goal. People who put in place implementation intentions are more likely to attain their goals.
Mental stimulations look at planning and problem solving. People who focus on planning and problem solving instead of the wanted outcome. Visualizing the fantasy of success is not productive in reaching one’s goal.
The chapter ended with an eight-step goal setting program model broken in two parts. The first four steps are sequential steps for goal setting: specify the object, set goal difficulty, clarify the goals specificity, and decide when performance will be assessed. The last four steps are also sequential, but involve the goal striving process – check on goal acceptance, discuss goal attainment strategies, formulate implementation intentions and provide performance feedback.
What was the most surprising thing you learned?
The most surprising thing I learned was all that goes into goal setting and planning. There is so much more that goes into the process than the average person would think. I knew basics of goals such as the best goals are difficult and specific. I did not consider all that goes into the attainment of a goal and what things could help aid in the attainment.
How does the knowledge from this chapter help you to motivate yourself towards desired goals?
The knowledge from this chapter helps motivate me towards my goals in giving me more ways to hopefully be successful in attaining my goals. The biggest particular thing I am taking away from this chapter is implementation intentions. Working towards my goals now I think I will always try to specify what it is I am trying to achieve. I also think that setting times, places and how I am going to work towards my goal will help with my chronic problem of not wanting to initiate. Finally, the best thing I think I can keep in mind, is that long term goals are like cognitive lattice structures – working up from the bottom with the most concrete (short-term) goals towards the more abstract (long-term) goals.
Terms: cognition-action sequence, plans, goals, implementation intentions, mental stimulations, discrepancy, incongruity, discrepancy reduction, discrepancy creation, feedback, goal acceptance, and test-operate-test- exit (TOTE) model
Chapter 8 deals with goals, how our brain reacts to the need we have to reach goals, and how we are motivated to change our behavior in order to reach a goal. There are four key concepts dealing with goals in this chapter: planning, goals, implementation intentions and mental stimutlations. These concepts are used to explain what happens when we realize the gap between the situation were are currently in and where we want to be in the future (the goal). When an individual realizes this gap, they begin to go through a process introduced to us as the TOTE process (Test-operate-test-exit). In this process an individual must first realize there is a need to be met (goal to be reached) they then enter the operate mode, where they attemp to change their behavior in order to move towards a desired state. In the second 'test' stage, the individual decides whether or not they have reached the desired state, if they have they exit, if not they continue through the process again.
I thought the psychological steps behind achieving goals was surprising. Many of us have goals we want to achieve but don't get involved enough to actually see them to the end. It was surprising that there are eight steps in achieving a goal, I never would have thought that there was that much of a process involved. I'll deffinately refer to this chapter the next time I set a goal for myself, as I think it will help me realize just how involved i need to be if I actually want to reach a goal.
I think the most valuable information this chapter provided was the steps to achieving a goal. This chapter discussed how getting started is the hardest part, and that it is alright to set small goals in order to reach larger ones, this is helpful because personally, I think that would be the deciding factor in making sure I reach a goal. If i have my big goal written down and I see it everyday, and am aware of what it takes tog et to the small steps in between, the chance of me achieving that goal increases greatly.
ME Terms:Plans, implementation intentions,goal, achievment, TOTE, process, psychological
This chapter explains goals and goal setting; it breaks down cognitive perspective on motivation and goal setting. Their perspective is cognitions are mental events as said in the book on page 206. Cognitive sources revolve around a person’s way of thinking, they produce cognitive mental events that allow us as they say in the book, “spring into action”(page 207).
This chapter also breaks down goal setting and explains our drives and motivations that make us set goals. Example is on page 212, they describe how people with goals outperform people without a goal. In this section they also explain goal difficulty as well as goal specificity. Goal difficulty as it implies is the level of how hard a goal is to actually set and goal specificity tells a goal-setter precisely what to do.
What was the most surprising thing you learned? How does the knowledge from this chapter help you to motivate yourself towards desired goals?
I would have to say the most interesting thing about this entire chapter was the criticism on goal setting. On page 218, they explain in detail at least two different cautions where goal-setting fails us. First off, goal setting was developed in the business world mainly and was meant to enhance the worker’s performance not motivate them. Its initial intent was not to make a person’s life better but a business’s profit much richer. The 2nd caution they talk about is that goal-setting only workers with individuals who are setting goals on tasks that are uninteresting and straightforward. Tasks such as typing a paper, adding numbers, fixing a few nuts and bolts, or doing sit-ups generate motivation to get the job done.
I think the knowledge from this chapter is a lot of knowledge that I already know. But the section on criticism is things I have never thought about before and provides me with insight into how goal-setting can fail me. Under the criticism section they talk about how overly complicated goals can be too hard for me to accomplish. So it makes me understand that when I set a goal I need to set a realistic one to save my self any kind of disappointment in case I fail. I love the last part where they talk about how goals are formed and why they are formed. A third caution to be warned about is to understood who exactly is making the goals that you have to accomplish. Businesses are notorious for this, so one day I will work for a company but I need to make sure I know that whatever company I work for they are setting realistic goals for me .
me words: goals, goal-setting, conigition, criticisim, cognitive mental events, goal difficulty, goal specificity
Chapter 8 discusses the topic of goal setting, and everything that is incorporated in the process of goal setting and planning. Early in the chapter the book talks about plans, meaning that people have a vision in their head of what an ideal situation looks like, and when this situation does not fit their vision they see it as incongruent. The book uses the Test-Operate-Test-Exit (TOTE Model) to explain the process that people go through when they are dealing with an incongruent situation. Corrective Motivation is different in the fact that it “activates a decision-making process in which the individual considers many different possible ways for reducing the present-ideal incongruity: change the plan, change behavior, or withdraw from the plan altogether.” Discrepancy compares the present state to the ideal state and puts it on a spectrum. There are two types of discrepancy including: discrepancy reduction and discrepancy creation. The next section of the chapter discusses goal setting. Goals must reach a certain level of difficulty and specificity. As these two things increase, performance increases. Feedback is essential to reaching a goal. If a person does not know how he/she is doing in progression to their goal it will be difficult to obtain. The chapter ends by explaining how to implement the goal, where to get started, and how to successfully persist to reaching the goal.
The most surprising thing I have learned from this chapter is the section on goal pursuit and getting started. A lot goes into setting realistic and obtainable goals, including deciding when, where, and how the goal will be implemented. I think this is important, and although it seems obvious, I believe this is something that people can easily skip doing. It is important that people plan for a goal. For example, I facilitate smoking cessation programs, and it is important that my participants plan exactly how they intend to obtain their goal to quit smoking. If they do not have a plan in place then they are setting themselves up for failure.
The information from this chapter has helped me realize that in order to successfully reach my goals, I need to make my goals realistic. My goals need to be difficult and specific enough that I stay motivated to work toward them. My performance will be enhanced if they are as such. I also need to plan exactly how I intend to work toward my goals. Proper implementation will ensure my success.
Terms: goal setting, planning, incongruent, TOTE Model, Corrective Motivation, Discrepancy, discrepancy reduction, discrepancy creation, difficulty, specificity, implemetation
Chapter 8 is all about goals and figuring out ways to make them more attainable. This is shown in the TOTE model, where a person evaluates their present state and their ideal state, finds the amount of incongruity, and then executes a plan of action formed in the planning part of the TOTE model. In congruity is synonymous with discrepancy, and a person can either practice discrepancy reduction or discrepancy creation. Discrepancy reduction is concerned with planning and corrective motivation. Discrepancy creation is concerned with the goal setting process. After the planning stage goes into action the aim is to reduce the amount of discrepancy between present and ideal states.
Goal-directed behavior should improve performance if the goals are both difficult and specific. Goals that are difficult will result in sustained persistence and more effort. Goals that are specific focus our attention. A person must get two things before a goal will become effective. Also to consider, the idea of implementation intention, which specifies a plan based on the who, what, where, when, and why. When implementation intentions are used before goal-directed action, there is a higher chance of success for the action.
The goal-setting process has four steps, those of which are to specify the objective, set goal difficulty, clarify foal specificity, and assess the performance. There are four respondent steps as a result, which are goal acceptance, discussing goal strategies, formulating your implementation intentions, and providing feedback on the performance.
The most surprising thing I found in this chapter was the concept that in order to be successful, one must try to focus on the process involved rather than only the outcome to be achieved. By focusing step-by-step, the entire process seems much more attainable.
Knowledge from this chapter shows me how to begin the process of goal setting in order to achieve what I want. Viewing the area between your present state and your ideal state as a place to take steps of action can be helping when starting to set goals, because progress is immediate and steady. Basically focusing on the actual plan rather than the outcome will help me be more successful.
Summary
Chapter 8 discusses things such as cognitive perspective on motivation, plan, goal setting, and goal striving. Cognitive sources of motivation revolve around a person’s ways of thinking and believing. Cognitive mental events such as goals and expectancies can function as a “spring to action,” a moving force that energizes and directs action and direct action in purposive ways.
Plans and goals rely on discrepancy as their driving motivational force to action. Two types of discrepancies exist: discrepancy reduction and discrepancy creation. Discrepancy reduction captures the essence of plans and corrective motivation, whereas discrepancy creation captures the essence of goals and the goal-setting process. Discrepancy reduction is based on the discrepancy-detecting feedback that underlies plans and corrective motivation. Some aspect of the environment, scholarship opportunity or a boss provides feedback about how well or how poorly the person’s current performance level matches up with ideal performance level. Discrepancy creation is based on a “feed-forward” system in which the person looks forward and proactively sets a future, higher goal. The person deliberately sets a higher goal, an ideal state that does not yet exist except in the performer’s mind, and does not require feedback from a scholarship or a boss to impose it. Thus, the person proactively creates for himself or herself a new, higher goal to pursue.
Goals are the object people strive to accomplish. Like plans, goals generate motivation by focusing people’s attention on the discrepancy between their present level of accomplishment and their ideal level of accomplishment. Performing below goal level generates dissatisfaction that underlies a desire to improve; performing above goal level generates satisfaction that underlies a willingness to set more difficult goals in the future. Goals that are both difficult and specific generally improve performance, and they do so by producing motivational effects: Difficult goals mobilize effort and increase persistence, while specific goals direct attention and promote strategic planning. Two conditions are necessary before goals will enhance performance: feedback and goal acceptance. With feedback, a performer can evaluate his or her performance as being at, above, or below the level of the goal standard.
Feedback is crucial in making goal setting effective. Feedback allows people to keep track of any process toward their goal. In others words, a performer needs both a goal and feedback to maximize performance. Without feedback, performance can be emotionally unimportant and uninvolving. Just as the goal needs feedback to diagnose progress, the reverse is also true that feedback needs a goal (a standard of performance). It is only within the context of a goal that one can utilize feedback information to judge one’s performance as poor (below goal), okay (at goal), or excellent (above goal).
What was the most surprising thing you learned?
A lot of the information in chapter 8 was new to me so I learned quite a bit after reading this chapter. The most surprising and most interesting thing that I learned about in this chapter was the section on long-term goal setting. A student that was to be a professional football or an athlete who wants to win an Olympic event exemplifies individuals involved in long-term goal setting. To accomplish a distant goal, the performer first has to attain several requisite short-terms. Would-be professional football player would first have to go to college for a least one year before they could go pro; they would have to maintain a certain GPA in order to play on the team, put in a great amount of time to train, impress the football scout in order to be drafted to a professional football team, and so forth, all before they can begin their careers as a professional football player. Thus, goals can be short term or long term goal.
How does the knowledge from this chapter help you to motivate yourself towards desired goals?
One of my current goals is to obtain a Ph.D. in psychology. I do not know what specific field of psychology I want to get into yet so I need to decide this within the timespan of one year. I feel it is something that I am growing closer and closer to with every day that passes. But in order to achieve this long-term goal I have to accomplish some short term goals before I can obtain my doctorate degree. The things that I have to obtain a Ph.D. are, I have to decide on which school I would like to continue my studies at, then I have to take the GRE test and get a score that will allow me to go to the school of my choice, then I would have to move to a different state, then would have make the transition to a different school setting, have to read a lot more than I did as a undergrad, and my assignments would be more challenging. I am more than willing to put in the time, effort, and work because this would true what I want and I think it will make me a balanced man. Also to achieve my goal I must first look at my present state, where I am right now, and figure out my ideal state. After doing this I will use corrective motivation through this entire process. If something like an implementation intention would get in my way I would simply go back and change my ineffective plan.
ME Terms: cognitive perspective on motivation, plan, goal setting, goal striving, plans, goals, discrepancy reduction, discrepancy creation, feedback, goal acceptance, present state, ideal state, long term goal setting
Chapter Summary: This chapter focuses on cognitive motivation, goal planning and goal setting. Plans consist of having knowledge of your present state (current status of how life is going) and your ideal state (how a person wishes life was going). The test-operate-test-exit model is used in planning and this helps people plan direct behavior. Plans can be both short term and long term. Corrective motivation is when the decision making process is activated and the person looks at many possibilities of changing the plan or changing the behavior and helps the individual correct an ineffective plan. The main focus of this chapter is goal setting. A goal is whatever an individual is striving to accomplish. Those who make goals and set them are more likely to perform better. The more difficult the goal, the more effort and motivation put towards the goal in order to reach it. Two important aspects of goal setting are feedback and goal acceptance. Feedback gives the individual the knowledge to keep track of the process toward their goal. Goal acceptance is when one person attempts to provide another person with a goal. The remainder of the chapter looks at pursuing goals.
The most surprising thing I learned was in regards to goal setting. I never took into account that easier goals stimulate little effort, medium goals stimulate moderate effort and difficult goals stimulate high effort. I always assumed that when you made a goal you worked hard to reach that goal and I never took into account that easier goals produced little effort. I think this was an interesting part to read about.
How does the knowledge from this chapter help you to motivate yourself towards your desired goals? I feel that this chapter has helped me to motivate myself to make specific goals for myself. I need to make sure to make my goals difficult enough that I am able to put forth more effort and to give me more motivation and energy to reach them goals.
Terms: cognitive motivation, goal planning, goal setting, plans, test-operate-test-exit, goals, feedback, goal acceptance
The topics presented in Chapter 8 are plans, goal setting, and goal striving. The TOTE model is offered to discuss the way in which plans and behavior interact. If an incongruity exists when comparing one’s present state with the ideal state, behavior is modified and the comparison reconsidered until the ideal state is reached. The incongruity or discrepancy is what brings about motivation to make a change. There are two types of discrepancies, discrepancy reduction and discrepancy creation. Reduction refers to plan-based corrective motivation while creation refers to goal-setting motivation. A goal is set when one decides there is something he or she would like to accomplish. Those who set goals generally perform better than those who do not. For maximum performance when attaining a goal the goal must be difficult and specific, feedback is required, and the goal must be accepted by the individual. Only internalized goals improve performance. Goal striving refers to the way in which the goal is attained. Simply setting a goal does not mean it will be attained, focusing on how to accomplish it leads to goal attainment. In order to be successful the goal striving process must be planned, more specifically when, where, and how the goal will be implemented.
I was surprised to learn that the more difficult the goal, the more it energizes a person. I would think that difficult goals would be daunting and seem out of reach, whereas an easy goal might be more energizing because it would seem easily attainable.
The knowledge from this chapter motivates me to focus more on the goal striving process. If I take the time to plan out the implementation intentions it makes the goal seem easier to accomplish and gives me a plan to execute. I am bad about saying, “oh I’ll just do it later”, waiting for some time to free up. When I do that it never gets accomplished because something else always comes up that also needs to get done. I need to set when, where, and how I am going to get tasks complete.
Plans, goal setting, goal striving, TOTE model, discrepancy reduction, discrepancy creation, feedback, implementation intentions
Summarize the chapter.
How a person thinks and what they believe is a result of cognitive sources of motivation. Within the individual’s mind, they have ideal states of their behavior, environment, objects, and events will play out through mental representations. Incongruity occurs when there is a discrepancy between one’s ideal state and the actual present state. People do not like when there is incongruity, so they make a plan to remove the incongruity. They do this with the hope that removing the incongruity will alter the present state into their ideal state. The individual will continue to operate on the environment if feedback shows that the incongruity still persists. Allowing a person to operate to achieve the ideal state and revise the ineffective plan is important in allowing people to take on the role of being a decision maker.
Discrepancy is the state of having inconsistency of the possible circumstances and the present circumstances. Persistent discrepancy produces negative emotions when a person has progress towards their goal that is slower than they originally anticipated. When they progress to their goal at an expected rate, little emotion is felt. If the goal progress goes faster than expected, discrepancy reduction produces positive emotions. In addition, the awareness of the mismatch between what currently exists and what is desired creates a sense of discrepancy and incongruity. There are two types of discrepancy: discrepancy reduction and discrepancy creation. Discrepancy-detecting feedback that is the foundation of plans and corrective motivation is known as discrepancy reduction. When a person looks forward to setting a future goal that is higher than it was previously set, it is known as discrepancy creation.
If a person sets their own goals or has someone set them for them, they are more likely to perform those goals. There is a degree in which goal setting varies in effort, which is known as goal difficulty. Easy goals usually require little effort, medium goals stimulate moderate effort, and difficult goals call for a high amount of effort. Having goal specificity is important to ensure the individual does what he or she needs to do. Persistence needs to increase for difficult goals, so the person can strive until the goal is reached. Individuals are more likely to stop the task when the goal is accomplished, rather than when they become bored, frustrated, or tired. A strategic set of actions are implemented when specific goals are set. This leads people to gain knowledge and strategy. Feedback is the crucial role in allowing people to monitor their progress towards their goal. It provides information to judge whether one’s performance was poor, okay, or excellent. The person that is performing below the goal level will most likely display feelings of dissatisfaction.
Accepting the goal is a crucial variable when people set a goal for themselves or another sets one for them. The three conditions for goals are that the goals need to be difficult and specific, allow the person to be provided with feedback, and goal acceptance. An individual will accept or reject the goal on the basis of the perceived difficulty of the goal, participation in the goal-setting process, the other individual’s credibility that is setting the goal, and the presence of extrinsic incentives. Goals that are easy-to-accomplish usually result in goal acceptance, while difficult goals, on the other hand, tend to leas to goal rejection. If someone is attempting to force a goal on another, it will typically end with goal rejection, unless rationale is provided.
Long-term goals achievement is possible with several short term goals in place along the way. The persistence and intrinsic motivation is affected by the goal proximity, or how close it is to occurring. Having a series of short term goals that eventually lead to a long-term goal attainment allow for persistence to benefit, rather than waiting for the goal to be completely accomplished. These short-term goals increase intrinsic motivation by allowing for the positive feedback to occur, the individual to notice the progress, and nurturing the sense of competence.
People who set implication intentions are more likely to complete their goals. Through this, positive effects assist the individual with getting started, persistence when difficulties occur, and if the goal is interrupted the goal-direction action can resume. Goal-directed action is controlled by implication intentions in that it delegates what to do during anticipated situational cues.
There is an eight step program when it comes to goal setting. The first four are in regards to goal-setting process and the last four are within the goal-striving process. 1. Specify the objective that needs to be accomplished, 2. Difficulty of the goal is defined, 3. Specificity of the goal is clarified, 4. The assessment time span for performance, 5. Goal acceptance is checked, 6. Goal-attainment strategies are discussed, 7. Implementation intentions are created, and 8. Performance feedback is provided.
What was the most surprising thing you learned?
The most interesting aspect of this chapter was about setting long-term goals. It is something that I currently do, but did not think of it as a series of short-term goals. It also provided me with the insight that some people may not accomplish long-term goals because they do not set and provide rewards for short-term goals. If a person does not have the intrinsic motivation to achieve a long-term goal, they are less likely to strive for it, since interest does not exist. In addition, I did not realize how much of a vital role feedback plays in determining accomplishing long-term goals.
How does the knowledge from this chapter help you to motivate yourself towards desired goals?
It is important to have a plan of action when it comes to setting goals. This could be done by mental processes or making lists, so I am able to monitor the steps I have taken and the process along the way. The more difficult and long-term the goal is to accomplish, the more planning it will require. If it is something that I really want to accomplish it, I will be sure to put in the extra effort for the benefits I anticipate that I will receive, whether it is from intrinsic or extrinsic motivation. I will also utilize the steps in an effective goal-setting process.
Terms: Plans, Incongruity, “operate”, discrepancy, discrepancy reduction, discrepancy creation, goals, goal difficulty, goal acceptance, goal rejection, short-term goals, long-term goals, goal striving
Chapter 8 discusses how four elements of cognition affect the action sequence. These four elements are plans, goals, implementation intentions, and mental simulations. The cognitive side of study of motivation began around the 1960’s by a few psychologists. They realized that we all have ideal states of behavior, environmental objects, and events. When these ideal states get mixed up with our present states, discrepancies and a feeling of “incongruity” are created. We use corrective motivation to help restore these states to our ideal states. There are two types of discrepancies that are discussed in the chapter. Discrepancy reduction is based on the discrepancy-detecting feedback, and discrepancy creation is a system used to look forward and set a future goal. The chapter defines goals, and states that there are two conditions that must be met before a goal will enhance performance. You must have feedback and goal acceptance in order to gain any improvements. Implementation intentions give us something positive to encourage us to complete our goals. The last subject discussed in the chapter was the eight step goal-setting program that we can use to help ourselves to overcome our difficult and specific goals.
There were a few things in this chapter that I found to be surprising. Something that took me by surprise was just how easy we can become distracted or frustrated with our goals just by thinking of them. The book talks about how if we think of how were going to achieve the goal then we will have more success than just thinking of the goal itself. We use implementation intentions to help keep us on the right path and to keep us from getting distracted from the end goal in mind.
This chapter helped me to motivate myself by using little tricks to guide my way through any discrepancy I may have. I also learned that I need to set specific goals that I know I can accomplish, so that when I make long-term goals they are not impossible to achieve.
TERMS USED: Cognition, plans, goals, implementation intentions, mental simulations, ideal/present states, discrepancy reduction, discrepancy creation, incongruity, corrective motivation, feedback, goal acceptance , specific goals.
*Summarize the chapter.
Chapter 8 is all about plans, goal setting, the different things needed to make a goal reachable, and goal striving. There are many steps to take when you want to set a goal. First of all, you have to realize that there is a goal that needs to be set. Most people realize this when there is a different in someone’s present state and their ideal state. When someone realizes this, it causes discomfort. It might give them some sort of anxiety because they start to see that they aren’t exactly where they want to be. This is when they start to devise a plan. The plan is what the individual is going to do to accomplish the goal. A goal is whatever the individual is trying to accomplish. If someone wants to lose 20 pounds in one month, that would be the goal. And whatever they need to do to achieve that goal will be the plan. Goals need to be set a certain way, or they will not be achieved. A goal needs to be at a certain level of difficulty and it also needs to be specific to the task that it involves. The goal also needs to have feedback when the individual is in the process of accomplishing it. If a goal contains all three of these things, it will enhance the person’s performance in completing the goal. The goal also needs to be accepted by the individual that is accomplishing it. They have to be able to know that they can do it (or at least think they can do it), otherwise it won’t get done. With all this being said, anyone can set a goal. That’s why the most important part is the goal striving. When someone sets a goal that is the easy part. The striving is the actual action is takes to complete that goal.
*What was the most surprising thing you learned?
I think the most surprising thing I learned was how many parts there actually are to a goal. I always just assumed that a goal was a goal. I didn’t realize it had so many parts and steps in order to get accomplished. First, goals have to be difficult. It has been proven that as goal difficulty increases, performance increases. When I first read this I was in disbelief. Who wants to accomplish a hard goal? But when I thought about it, it became more understandable. When I work out I always set my goal a little bit higher than I think I can accomplish. If I think I can only do 20 sit-ups, I automatically push it up to 30 before I even start. When my mind gets set on 30 instead of 20, I find it much easier to push my body to that limit. The second thing that goals need is specificity. Goals need to be specific. If goals are not specific, the individual trying to accomplish the goal will not know where to start. You have to have a specific goal set for yourself before you begin striving towards that goal. The third thing that a goal needs before you can start on achieving it is feedback. Throughout the process of acquiring the accomplished goal, the individual needs feedback. If the individual doesn’t feel like they are getting anywhere with the goal they have set, then they won’t follow through with that goal. The fourth, and final, thing that a goal needs is acceptance. This one is very obvious to me. If someone doesn’t accept the goal, they will not achieve it. So there are four parts to setting a goal. I would have never guessed that. I thought it was as easy as just saying, “Hey, I’m going to do this.” But now I know there is a lot more that goes into the process of goal setting.
*How does the knowledge from this chapter help you to motivate yourself towards desired goals?
I think now that I know how goal setting and goal striving works, it will be much easier for me to accomplish my goals. I have a lot of long-term goals set right now and I think that a lot of feedback would help. I need to remind myself that I am closer to those goals than I was a year ago, or in some cases, even a month ago. I have learned that from this class, once you really learn how things like motivation, goal setting, and goal striving work, it is much easier to use those tools out in the real world. After reading this chapter I will be able to apply this new knowledge to my goals and my life.
*TERMS: Goal, Present State, Ideal State, Plan, Goal, Goal Difficulty, Goal Specificity, Feedback, Goal Acceptance, Goal Striving, Motivation