Read Chapter 3 of your textbook.
Summarize the chapter, then answer the questions. What information was most surpising to you? What information was most confusing to you? What information do you want to learn more about? How is your understanding of motivation changed now that you've learned about some of the biological/physiological bases of it?
Chapter 3 gives detailed information about the various parts of the brain in terms of their function(s) relating to motivation and emotion. One concept the chapter explains is that there are specific structures, such as the hypothalamus, medial forebrain bundle, and nucleus Accumbens that generate specific motivational states, such as positive feelings and approach motivation. Another concept the chapter explains is that there are biochemical agents, such as neurotransmitters and hormones that stimulate the aforementioned brain structures. The four motivationally relevant neurotransmitter pathways are dopamine, serotonin, norepinephrine, and endorphin. Prior to reading the chapter I did not know there were four motivationally relevant pathways, and I had never heard of norepinephrine. One more concept the chapter explains is that environmental events or effects cause brain-stimulating biochemical agents to be used. These agents could be used to deal with positive or negative environmental events, such as talking to a long lost friend or being mugged.
Just in general I was surprised and had not really thought of before, that the brain generates people’s cravings, appetites, needs, desires, and many other emotional factors. I usually contributed environmental factors to cause certain emotional factors, such as needs, desires and cravings. The terminology was the most confusing part to me, which makes me really glad that we are not required to memorize any of it. I would like to learn more about where the separation lies between conscious and unconscious motivational factors in terms of how it affects our behaviors because so many times people are always surprised by what a person does, because ‘it is out of character for them’. I would like to learn more to be able to better understand certain situations such as those. My understanding of motivation has developed a little bit more, now that I can name some of the brain structures or processes that cause certain motivational and emotional responses. I also understand now that many experiments have found that motives can and do originate in the unconscious limbic structures rather than in the conscious cerebral cortex, which again is another reason why I would like to learn more about unconscious motivators.
This chapter took a look at the brains role in motivation and emotions. Some of the brain structures that were described are the hypothalamus, medial forebrain bundel, orbitofrontal cortex, amygdala, septo-hippocampal circuit, anterior cingulate cortex, reticular formation and the prefrontal cortex. Some of the important roles of these structures are as follows; hypothalamus contols many biological functions such as eating, drinking, and mating and it also controls the pituitary gland, the amygdala is largely responsible for the emotions that we feel, the reticular formation is important for arousal. Neurotransmitters and their roles within the brain were also discussed. Some of the motivationally important neurtransmitters include dopamine, seratonin, norepinephrine, and endorphin.
Something that was surprising to me was the idea that the anticipation of something such as a sexual encounter or some other rewarding event will release just as much dopamine that triggers pleasure than may actually occur during the rewarding event. I wasn't confused by any of the information because I have had a lot of classes in my undergraduate studies that dealt with the brain such as anatomy, brain and behavior, sensation and perception, and psychopharmacology. I am always interested in the idea that most of the information that we know about the brain comes from animal studies and injured human brains, which both have their limitations. One thing I really like about this chapter was in the discussion of how the amygdala has projections going out to most of the brain but very few coming back in. This causes our emotions to often overpower our more rational thinking and can often cause us to say or do something we might regret later.
Summary.
Chapter 3 discusses the relationship between the brain and motivation. It begins with describing the brain structures associated with motivation and emotion, and their detailed functions. These brain structures are then categorized into approach-oriented structures, avoidance-oriented structures, and arousal structures. Exactly how the brain structures have an impact on motivation, and vice versa, are through neurotransmitters and hormones. Neurotransmitters are the chemical messengers which activate four pathways influencing good feelings, mood and emotion, arousal and alertness, and fear and anxiety. The activation of these pathways have a direct link to motivation. Addictive drugs are also mentioned because of their ability to stimulate the neurotransmitter Dopamine and its pleasure receptors. Three hormones are evaluated, and their functions, which show the effect on behavior, motivation, and emotion.
Most surprising.
The most surprising to me was the separation of brain structures into approach-oriented structures, avoidance oriented structures, and the one arousal-oriented structure. I have learned before the functions of the brain structures, but it was interesting to see them categorized that way.
Confusing.
I am still a little confused about the Behavioral Activation System (BAS) and the Behavioral Inhibition System (BIS). I feel like I somewhat understand avoidance-oriented motivations and approach-oriented motivations. However, when it went into left-side asymmetry and right-side asymmetry and how these relate to BIS and BAS scores, I got completely lost. I may have to re-read this section several more times.
Learn more about.
I was really interested in the new antidepressant drug that does not work on dopamine or serotonin, but works on decreasing the stress hormone cortisol. It is thought that cortisol decreases new cell growth and this cell growth helps decrease depression. When I think of cortisol, I think of the diet drug that is advertised to reduce cortisol, which is said to cause belly fat. A weight reducer and antidepressant in one pill?
How my understanding of motivation has changed.
My understanding of motivation has evolved to include brain structures, neurotransmitters, and hormones when considering why people do what they do. I no longer think it is totally a person’s conscious choice in their decisions, but there are other components that may control behavior. For example, it is easier to understand that a person may not necessarily actively choose to be depressed. It could be due to a malfunctioning brain structure or the body not producing enough of a neurotransmitter.
Chapter three consisted of a summarization of the limbic system, which is an integral part of motivation and emotion. Overall, the limbic system reacts to environments and events and produces emotional reactions and behaviors. This part of the brain is responsible for a variety of responses and is almost like an electrical outlet for what we do and feel.
In addition to a summarization of the limbic system, the chapter described each aspect of the system including: the hypothalamus, amygdala, hippocampus, septal area, ventral tegmental area, and fibers. In addition the chapter covered pivitol neurotransmitters like dopamine and how they affect our behaviors and choices. Researchers investigate all of these brain structures using fMRI.
The hypothalamus regulates bodily needs like eating, sex, etc. The medial forebrain bundle includes the pleasure center of the brain and responds to what makes us feel energized in a positive way. Then orbitofrontal cortex helps us when we are choosing between several options and remembers positive and negative decisions in the past to help us make our current decisions. Also, there is the amygdala, which responds to emotional events and prepares itself to make emotional reactions to certain events. All of these structures work together collaboratively to encourage different sets of emotional and behavioral responses that take into consideration past experiences and current circumstances.
To be honest, this chapter was pretty cut and dry in terms of content and I was not confused about any of it. However, reviewing this information was helpful because although these structures are the basis of everything we do, not much thought is given to them on a day to day basis.
Now that I have learned about the biological/physiological bases of motivation and emotion it is easier to understand the reason why people do what they do. It also gives concrete support to motivational theories, which can benefit research. In some ways I already knew some of this information, but reading about these structures from a motivation/emotion perspective makes everything fit together in a more firm way.
Chapter three consisted of a summarization of the limbic system, which is an integral part of motivation and emotion. Overall, the limbic system reacts to environments and events and produces emotional reactions and behaviors. This part of the brain is responsible for a variety of responses and is almost like an electrical outlet for what we do and feel.
In addition to a summarization of the limbic system, the chapter described each aspect of the system including: the hypothalamus, amygdala, hippocampus, septal area, ventral tegmental area, and fibers. In addition the chapter covered pivitol neurotransmitters like dopamine and how they affect our behaviors and choices. Researchers investigate all of these brain structures using fMRI.
The hypothalamus regulates bodily needs like eating, sex, etc. The medial forebrain bundle includes the pleasure center of the brain and responds to what makes us feel energized in a positive way. Then orbitofrontal cortex helps us when we are choosing between several options and remembers positive and negative decisions in the past to help us make our current decisions. Also, there is the amygdala, which responds to emotional events and prepares itself to make emotional reactions to certain events. All of these structures work together collaboratively to encourage different sets of emotional and behavioral responses that take into consideration past experiences and current circumstances.
To be honest, this chapter was pretty cut and dry in terms of content and I was not confused about any of it. However, reviewing this information was helpful because although these structures are the basis of everything we do, not much thought is given to them on a day to day basis.
Now that I have learned about the biological/physiological bases of motivation and emotion it is easier to understand the reason why people do what they do. It also gives concrete support to motivational theories, which can benefit research. In some ways I already knew some of this information, but reading about these structures from a motivation/emotion perspective makes everything fit together in a more firm way.
In chapter 3 I learn about the basic structures of the brain. Each one of these structures plays a key role in everyone’s day to day motives and emotions. The Hypothalamus is the smallest part of the brain but it plays the biggest role in motivation. This is what triggers the want for food, something to drink, and sex. The Orbitofrontal Cortex is the part of the brain that helps us in the decision making process, which drink do I want and what brand? The Amygdala gives us the emotions of anger and fear, this is also the part of the brain where anxiety comes from. Other than the emotions it gives us, the amygdale can also gives us the ability to read facial expressions. Moving on to the Septo-Hippocampal and Anterior Cingulate Cortax, these are the two parts that I found the most interesting to learn about. In the septo-hippocampal, there is the okay mode and the not okay mode. The okay mood is when you expect something to happen and it does. The example in the book is coming home to a locked door and the dog waiting. The not okay mood would be coming home to a door is unlocked and no dog. The not okay mode is better known as anxiety. A couple other things like punishment, failure and depression can also set off anxiety. Luckily, for those people who have bad anxiety can get pills that help calm the hippocampus down. This pill or drugs set off endorphins. Endorphins are what calm the septo-hippocampal, which will cause anxiety levels to go down. The anterior cingulate cortex is what determines our mood from day to day, and it also helps in the decision making process. The anterior Cingulate Cortax can also create depression if there is a lack in activity.
One thing that I found surprising was under “We Are Not Always Consciously Aware of the Motivational Basis of Our Behavior”. In this section, there is a phase that states that when someone picks out a goal, and then asked why they have picked that certain goal they become speechless and are not sure why they picked it. I find this surprising because I have never really thought about it before. I pick a goal and that’s that. I guess I never really thought of a reason why I choose it; I just did and went with it. It’s interesting. Another thing that surprised me was when I was reading the highlighted box note. The first line says that everyone has struggled with depression but only 1 out of 10 will have clinical depression. I just found that odd because there are some people I know that never seem depressed to me, and the numbers were a bit surprising too.
I had to read the chapter a couple times because the first time I was really confused and couldn’t remember what structure went with which definition. After re-reading it a couple times it all fell into place. I think I understand it now, but I might have to re-read it again just to make sure.
One thing that I would like to learn that I didn’t see in the chapter is why we say things without thinking about it first. That would save me future embarrassment! Also I’d like to learn more about depression and how dopamine plays a role.
Reading this chapter gave me a better understanding on what the brain really does other than just holding on to information. Breaking the brain down into the different sections helped to understand all the roles that it plays in our everyday lives and how it can affect us or help us.
Chapter 3 brings about information on the structures of the brain that generate and also maintain motivational and emotional states. In the chapter there are three principles presented that help one understand the brain-based motivational process. Through either surgery or other technology such as the fMRI, these principles have emerged. These three are: (1) specific brain structures generate specific motivations, (2) biochemical agents stimulate specific brain structures, and (3) Day-to-Day events stir biochemical agents into action. The model that was presented with this really helped explain this. Basically an environmental agent stimulates a biochemical agent that is specific to a certain brain structure, and then the aroused motivation occurs. The rest of the chapter goes on to further explain specfic brain structures that stimulate motivation (ex: hypothalamus stimulating hunger).
The information that was most suprising to me was the addiction section. I have a personal interest in this subject so it was interesting to learn that brain can become hypersensitive to drugs. Of course I knew that drugs alter the brain, but after learning about the dopamine reward system it helped but a more concrete logic behind the causes of addiction.
Memerizing the structures along with their definitions and functions proved to be quiet challenging. I have always had some trouble with this area, but by reading the material over and taking better notes, I feel as though I will be able to get it.
I would like to learn more about how motivation cannot be separated from social context. I think this theory can help better understand such things as hazing, bullying, and other pressures behind social situations. If certain situations motivate us to do something, how can we learn to be motivated differently if the behaviors are negative?
Finally, after learning about the physical and functioning parts of the brain that causes motivation, it is easier to understand that motivation is a tangible brain process. One may feel that they are motivated by something, but this chapter helps reveal what parts of the brain are really causing this behavior.
Chapter 3 talks about the brain and its involvement in motivation and emotion. Specific areas and functions are explained. There is a good chart on page 54 that separates parts of the brain and their functions into 3 categories which are approach-oriented, avoidance-oriented, and arousal-oriented. This chapter covers how signals are sent to the brain to motivate us and what parts of the brain are associated with what actions or desires. This is an important chapter because we need to know how we experience motivation and emotion if we are to continue discussing it.
One thing I found surprising is the very beginning of the chapter that explains ghrelin. I have heard that when you don’t eat and get hungry it slows your metabolism so you should eat multiple times a day to keep metabolism up. I have never heard of ghrelin before. It is a hormone that stimulates the brain to eat and creates hunger and it is released more when you consume less food.
The charts on page 51 are not so much surprising but they are interesting. They show how the brain is motivated or creates emotion. It starts with an environmental event then a biochemical agent, then brain structure, and finally aroused motivation or aroused emotion.
A pleasant surprise was the explanation of the two dimensions of personality which are extraversion or BAS and neuroticism or BIS. I have talked and read about personality in many other psychology classes and even blogged about it in Psych. of Humor. I was surprised to find a similar explanation of personality (the two categories). I also like the fact that this text makes it a point to tell us that some people are naturally more motivated to do certain things than others. The two dimensions are neurobiological based meaning people can have a more sensitive right prefrontal lobe or a more sensitive left prefrontal lobe. This shows a biological predisposition for personality type.
I don’t think much of the information was confusing. The text does a good job at explaining such complex topics.
Something I would like to learn more about and I thought was a little vague is unconscious motivation. Sometimes we aren’t aware of why we did something, why we want something, or why we have an urge to do something. Regardless if we realize it or not, there is always a reason that motivates our desires and actions whether it be environment, hormones, or improper brain functioning (disorders, diseases). I’m not sure why but I feel like I’m still missing something from this explanation. I understand, just not fully. I think I need a more in depth explanation or something.
I think I will look at motivation and emotion from a more scientific view from now on. This chapter helped me see motivation as something real. Now I won’t be able to say someone was motivated to eat a cookie because they were hungry. Instead I can say someone wanted to eat a cookie because they were nutrient deprived which produced Ghrelin that stimulated their hypothalamus in the brain and the hypothalamus stimulation produced a psychological experience of hunger. I can explain it a little better now.
Summary
This chapter was about motivation and emotion in the brain. The chapter highlights three principles that guide research on motivation and emotion within the brain. These three principles are specific brain structures generate specific motivations, biochemical agents stimulate specific brain structures, and day-to-day events stir biochemical agents into action. The chapter then talks about the different ways researchers have examined the brain including a brain surgery where the patient is awake. The bulk of the chapter contains information about how the different parts of the brain are associated with motivation and emotion. There is also information about neurotransmitters in the brain, and the chapter went into further detail about one of these, dopamine, which causes good feelings.
What information was most surprising to you?
The information that was most surprising to me was the comparing and contrasting of liking and wanting. Though wanting and liking are very similar, they are controlled by two different brain mechanisms. Liking serves as information when people are picking between two choices, and wanting can exist without liking. However the most rewarding experience occurs when wanting and liking exist together.
What information was most confusing to you?
The part that was most confusing to me was remembering which parts of the brain go with which functions. As I read the chapter and came across a certain part, I found myself frequently flipping back to the table with all of the structures and functions.
What information do you want to learn more about?
I was intrigued with the information about hunger. I know that when I do not eat I get hungry, but I never thought of what motivates that hunger. I assumed that there would only be one hormone that causes hunger, ghrelin, and when it is not present, the person is just not hungry. However after reading, I learned that there is another hormone, leptin, that is secreted into the body that causes the feeling of fullness. This made me wonder what happens if there is some sort of irregularity in the secretion of these hormones. I wondered if people could have a problem with secreting leptin, and this problem could lead to obesity. I think it would be interesting to learn more about the relationship between these hormones and obesity.
How is your understanding of motivation changed now that you've learned about some of the biological/physiological bases of it?
This biggest thing I learned about motivation from this chapter is how complicated it truly is. I never realized how much goes into my decision to eat a sandwich rather than do my homework. I now know more about the brain functions that cause my motivation, and that there are different parts associated with different emotions. It also makes me see the importance of avoiding damage as each part plays a vital role in our motivation and emotion.
Chapter three discusses the several parts of the brain that play a role in motivation and emotion. These parts include the hypothalamus, medial forebrain bundle, orbitofrontal cortex, amygdala, septo-hippocampal circuit, anterior cingulate cortex, reticular formation, prefrontal cortex, neurotransmitters, and other hormones. Each part influences why we feel motivated to do something and why we act on those feelings. They also differ in what type of motivation they effect. For example, the orbitofrontal cortex effects what decisions you make. Another example is hormones. There are many different hormones but there are three that are crucial to motivation and emotion: cortisol, testosterone, and oxytocin. Cortisol is the stress hormone that is activated when faced with stressful situations such as public speaking. Testosterone is linked with sexual motivation and is highly involved in events dealing with sex and mating. Oxytocin is associated with bonding and is released in situations where support and nurturance is needed. The main point of the chapter is to understand that the brain has a huge influence on why we do things and how we feel about them.
The information I found most surprising was about testosterone. I found it interesting that men in relationships/married have lower levels of testosterone than men who aren't married/in a relationship. However, it does make sense because men not in a relationship need to have higher levels of testosterone so they are more motivated to find a partner. It makes me wonder if the study that documented those findings tried to find similar findings in women. I also found it interesting that men who just generally have high levels of testosterone can be linked to having more affairs and that men with low levels are better at parenting.
I would like to learn more about the orbitofrontal cortex versus the anterior cingulate cortex. The book states that both of them are involved in decision making but what's the difference?
After reading this chapter, my understanding of motivation has changed in that I can see how it's such a complex concept. There are so many aspects involved that open up the concept of motivation and make it for a fascinating thing to learn about.
A short summary= For starters, Chapter three was way more interesting than the first two. I was able to stay awake, and read it without too much trouble. Chapter 3 largely discusses how certain brain structures/area affect motivation and daily life. It also explains how neurotransmitters and the endocrine system affect motivation.
Most Surprising Info= I thought that the lateralization of motivational responses was the most interesting thing. I already have a very good understanding of areas of the brain, hormones, and neurotransmitters. I did not, however, know that our left and right brain differences extended to motivation as well. It came as a surprise to find out that the right side is negative and avoidance based (BIS). The left side is positive and approach-oriented (BAS).
Most Confusing= I didn’t find anything too confusing in this chapter. I have took many classes that have dealt with these subjects. I may have a problem remembering it all, But I shouldn’t have a problem comprehending it.
What I would Like to learn More of= I would like to know more about addiction and motivations. This chapter only really mentioned dopamine as an instigator of becoming addicted, and I assume there are other bodily chemicals that could increase the likelihood of addiction. Simply put, I would like to know more about how the body becomes motivated enough to start drug-seeking behavior.
How has my perspective changed= A great deal actually. I always thought that our conscious mind had complete control over motivations. But a lot of it is largely dependent upon brain structure and brain chemistry. It’s like waking up to find out you lost control of a limb.
First, this chapter shows the certain sections of our brain our responsible for certain emotions expressed. For example, our hypothalamus is responsible for the control of our hunger. These “signals” are transmitted through neurotransmitters and/or hormones as a way of communication. But even after that, we have to factor in our day to day lifestyle to see yet another causation of motivation, or why we act certain ways in certain situations. To understand these concepts today, test such as MRI’s are useful. These produce an electronic photograph without invasive surgery.
The chapter then takes a look deeper into the key role players in motivation and emotion. First, the hypothalamus is linked to feelings of hunger, mating and thirst. This is a key player in motivation because lack of any of these needs will result in minimal desire to be productive. Another role the hypothalamus plays is the feelings of arousal or relaxation. Next, the chapter talks about the medial forebrain bundle which is essentially fibers connecting the hypothalamus to the other limbic structures. This section is often looked upon as the “pleasure center.” This would be the area responsible for the “good feelings” you feel after doing well on a test or project. Then, the chapter looks at the orbititofrontal cortex, a key player in our decision making. A useful tool to study this section is a PET scan. Next they look into the amygdale, which is the associated nuclei. This would be the section that responds with emotions such as fear, anger or anxiety.
The prefrontal cortex is the location of a person’s goals. it has a distinguished right and left side, which are linked to different emotions. Simple said, the left side is associated with positive feelings and the right side with negative feelings. Next the chapters moves on to neurotransmitters, or the messengers. There are four pathways, or clusters of neurons and fibers, and they include dopamine (good feelings), serotonin, norepinephrine (alertness) and endorphin (pain receptors.) One thing to remember about dopamine is that it is released during the anticipatory phase of pleasure, not during the act itself. This was surprising and news to me. I have never thought about how just knowing something I wanted was coming actually made me happier. And to follow this, dopamine is active in goal building. Not only does it create the “good feelings” but it generates our thoughts to seek out this cause of the “good feelings.” This makes so much more sense to understanding some other’s behaviors. This scenario makes me think of all the times I was a child and I REALLY REALLY wanted a certain toy, but when I got the toy I was not as happy as when I simply wanted it. Crazy!
The section discussing addictions is very intriguing to me. There has always been a part of me, invested into this topic and learning these details of motivation makes understanding an addict easier. Sometimes an addict want to quit and may not even want to smoke for example. They are essentially “hooked” on the anticipation of a cigarette, not the act of smoking. The section I would like to learn more about is addiction. I know it is not quite as simple as I just stated but I am curious to learn more.
Overall, my attitude about motivation has changed slightly. I cannot say this chapter was relatively earth shattering because I have learned such information in previous classes. But it is interesting to learn it in the perspective of motivation. Most classes teach the information in a way that shows basic functions but to look at the big picture it is very interesting to me.
Chapter 3 has to do with the motivated and emotional brain. The chapter makes connections to the various functions and structures of the brain in connection to motivation and emotion. This chapter goes into great depth talking about these structures and some of those include: the hypothalamus, medial forebrain, orbitofrontal cortex and the prefrontal cortex. I realize that doesn’t cover all of them but there were too many to mention and explain in great detail.
The most interesting and surprising thing from this chapter had to do with hormones in the body. Testosterone is associated with high sexual motivation and according to the book, men in relationships have lower levels of testosterone than single men. This can cause a lower sex drive, thus promoting more committed and faithful behavior.
None of the information was overly confusing to me but I would like to gain a better understanding of the BIS and BAS systems. I understand that the BIS has to deal with the sensitive right prefrontal lobes and higher or more extreme negative emotions, whereas the BAS system deals with the sensitive left prefrontal lobes and higher levels of positive emotions. But that is where my understanding ends and my drive for more information begins. Is a person limited to one or the other, or can a person flip-flop from BIS and BAS on a daily basis?
My understanding of motivation has evolved in the way I have gained a better understanding of why our motivation and emotional levels are constantly changing. Previously I didn’t realize that some feelings and emotions are involuntary, that different brain structures control and release the flow and transfer of different chemicals throughout the body, thus containing our motivation and emotions.
Chapter three in the text provides a description of different areas of the brain that play a role in an individual’s motivation and emotion. Without going into a detailed listing of each of the sections of the brain that the chapter discussed, it is important to note that different areas of the brain play different roles in motivation. While I knew that motivation was affected by the brain, I had never thought of how it would impact different types of motivation. For example, while one portion of the brain controls our desire and motivation to obtain food, water, or a mate; another area all together controls things like emotions and the desire for things pleasurable.
In addition to the several areas of the brain that have a motivational function, the chapter also discussed chemicals in the brain and body that stimulate different behaviors. Some of these included dopamine, hormones, and serotonin. There was also a small section of the chapter that talked about addictions and how substances can affect our brain functioning, and cause us to feel and behave in different ways. This section was the most interesting to me. During my undergraduate study I took a class on drugs and human behavior and it was entirely about how different drugs impact areas of the brain and therefore cause different types of behaviors. The class was very biologically focused and went in-depth about some of the things discussed in chapter three. For example, Box 3 on page 68 talks about how medication for depression works and exactly what it does inside the brain that allows them to work. The author briefly describes how a lack of serotonin (or dopamine) can leave an individual vulnerable to depression, and how the medication’s job is to decrease reuptake. While I found this undergraduate class extremely interesting, due to the nature of the class I feel that I did not retain as much information as I would have liked to; therefore, this is an area that I would like to learn more about. Knowing what keeps our brained motivated towards a certain behavior or substance and how that is chemically influenced is a very interesting topic.
Not a lot of the chapter was confusing to me, as I have studied the brain a lot through my undergraduate classes. However, I do feel that as I read over the information I am well aware of and remember the information however it is often difficult to reproduce it after going a while without learning it. Therefore, I think a refresher in the brain areas is always useful, and can in some ways be confusing and challenging to learn.
My view of motivation has changed slightly because for the most part I think about motivation behaviorally. While I was aware that the brain has a heavy influence in motivation, it is not something that I think about often in practice. In I/O Psychology we look at ways to increase motivation and at causes for a decrease in motivation but rarely (never) look at the biological aspect. Motivation is thought about in regards to motivation at work, or in a family setting; not as a behavioral reaction to a biological occurrence. I think using this information could be very interesting in research. Looking at how individuals differ in their motivation levels and the levels of brain activity that influence that motivation would be very interesting. Maybe by looking at this we could even figure out what people are likely to be more motivated and goal-oriented than others.
Chapter 3 is all about brain function and which parts of the brain contain structures that aide motivation and emotion. The brain creates urges whether it is hunger, desire for sex, a need for warmth, etc. In this chapter, we see illustrated pictures of the brain and we also can read a breakdown of each brain structure and the role it plays in motivation and emotion. Motivational researchers study the brain by examining how the structures such as the hypothalamus initiate motivation. They also can study the biochemical aspects such as the effects of hormones and neurotransmitters. They also can see how everyday happenings in an individual’s lifestyle stimulate these biochemical reactions. The brain can be studied by both surgery and fMRI’s so that we can see a “map” of our structures in order to test specific areas. This chapter includes examples of what happens when different parts of the brain are stimulated. It also includes information on the four motivationally related neurotransmitter pathways which are dopamine, serotonin, norepinephrine and endorphin. Dopamine is discussed at length and indicated to be the most important pathway to generate good and positive feelings. Finally, this chapter includes information about important hormones studied in conjunction with motivational research and they are cortisol, testosterone and oxytocin.
The information that was the most surprising to me was the section on the septo-hippocampal circuit. I didn’t know that the hippocampus worked as a “comparator” that compares incoming information with old information (memories). The book gives the example of the hippocampus working in an okay/not okay mode. When events do not check in as “okay” then the hippocampus activates the septo-hippocampal circuit and anxiety occurs. Most interesting was learning that anti-anxiety drugs function by essentially turning the “not okay” checking mode off.
The most confusing part of this chapter was really just sorting through the information and not being overwhelmed by the terminology or the amount of information listed for each structure, each pathway, each hormone, etc. It is a lot of information all at once and I had to re-read a few paragraphs as I was completing the reading assignment.
I would really like to learn more about the prefrontal cerebral cortex and affect. More specifically I would like to learn more about all the intricate functions of the right frontal lobe of the cortex. I was really fascinated by this section because of personal reasons. My mother had brain cancer and had an enormous tumor (the size of a can of soda) removed from her right front lobe. After her successful surgery that removed the entire tumor, she has been left with a completely different personality, poor motor skills, slower reaction time and severe short-term memory loss. When I was reading about this part of the brain and its role in motivation I found some statements in the reading that I could connect with and I definitely want to read more about it.
My understanding of motivation has now taken on a more complex meaning. It is much less vague. Before the reading, I defined motivation as the urge or drive to act without really knowing where that urge or drive was initiated and which part of the brain was responsible for generating it.
Chapter three dealt primarily with the internal structures that affect motivation, rather than the external ones. In particular, this chapter described in detail the mechanisms that take place in our brain. There are different parts of the brain that affect different types of motivation. Along with a description of the brain structures, the authors describe the hormones and neurotransmitters involved in these processes. While I have had little education on neuroscience, I felt this chapter was well written and easy to understand.
Prior to reading this chapter, I had previously learned about the dopamine receptors and their effect on pleasure. I was surprised that this area of the brain was actually discovered on accident. I can only imagine how amazing that would be to witness a rat experiencing something like that. This technique was also used on humans and researchers observed similar behavior of the humans in that they continued to press the ‘pleasure button’. I was also surprised at how many different structures in the brain were active in determining motivation and emotion. Most of these actions in the brain are also unconscious which opens up a world of research when asking “Why do we do the things we do?”
Since neuropsychology is not a passion of mine, I was a little confused throughout the chapter as it discussed brain structures in detail that I am not familiar with. Though I understand most of the mechanisms that take place in the brain that affect behavior, getting the structure names themselves down is a little confusing to me. Since this is not everyone’s specialty, I think it would be beneficial to go over this material during lecture.
As we learned in chapter one, motivation and emotion are phenomena affected by two factors: internal and external. There are both biological and environmental factors at work when determining our behavior. After reading chapter three, I have a better understanding of how these biological mechanisms work. I have an interest in social psychology, and examining the relationship between man and environment is very interesting to me. This chapter gave me the perspective from a biological standpoint which is important when studying this behavioral science.
This chapter discusses the brain’s role in motivation and emotion. Hormones and neurotransmitters regulate the body and communicate to the brain what changes are needed. Only specific neurotransmitters/hormones can stimulate specific brain structures. There are four neurotransmitter pathways; dopamine, serotonin, endorphin, and norepinephrine. There are three major hormones; cortisol, testosterone, and oxytocin. The specific brain structures initiate motivations and emotions. The structures are divided into subgroups; approach-oriented, avoidance-oriented, and one arousal-oriented structure (Reticular formation). The two subgroups, approach-oriented and avoidant-oriented, create two dimensions of personality traits which each individual varies in intensity. Environmental factors have a major influence on motivations and emotions. In fact the book states that motivation cannot be considered without its environment.
It was surprising to hear that unexpected rewards create the greatest dopamine release. It would seem that an individual would continue to seek unexpected rewards rather than repeating behaviors that will only provide less of a satisfying reaction because has been predicted. It does make sense that the individual would mark this unexpected reward as motivationally significant and repeat, seeking the same reward. The part I found to be confusing is wanting without liking. The nicotine example does explain this concept but I had hard time applying it to other circumstances. I think it would be interesting to further consider what differences there are in experiments versus the brain in the natural environment. Would the brain show the same reaction if the individual was in a different environment rather than a clinic? I never really thought the motivation and emotion could be scientifically studied. Knowing the physiology of motivation and emotion, I now understand that neurotransmitters and hormones play a much larger role than I had anticipated.
Chapter 3 discusses the importance of the brain and different roles it plays in our daily activities and decisions. It processes cognitive and intellectual functions and is the center of motivation and emotion. To understand how the brain works it is mapped to see which brain structures are associated with each motivational state, how those brain structures become activated, and how daily activities create the activation process. Using an fMRI can help pinpoint exactly which brain structures are being used during everyday activities. The brain structures associated with positive feelings are the hypothalamus, medial forebrain bundle, septal area, orbitofrontal cortex, nucleus accumbens, medial prefrontal cortex, and left prefrontal cortex. The structures associated with negative feelings are the amygdala, hippocampus, and the right prefrontal cortex. Four neurotransmitters that pertain to motivation are dopamine, serotonin, norepinephrine, and endorphin.
An interesting thing I learned from this chapter is how Ghrelin levels rise when the hypothalamus sends a signal that the body is hungry and that leptin is released to inform the body that it’s full.
One confusing topic in the chapter was the three principles that guide research on motivation and emotion on the brain. This along with the many parts of the brain were confusing and a lot to learn in one chapter.
Some things I would like to learn more about are more studies on how the brain gets activated when it comes to motivation and emotion and also research findings on fMRIs and how they relate to our daily activities.
I have learned that even though we think we know what causes us to behave the way we do, there are always underlying factors, such as chemicals in the brain, that cause our actions. Most of the time the behaviors that are caused by our brain are internally motivated and important to our basic needs, cognitions, and emotions.
Chapter three summarized many of the structures of the brain and how they affect motivation and emotion. Some of these parts included: the hypothalamus, the amygdala, prefrontal cortex, different neurotransmitters, etc. There are so many different parts and each one plays a very important role in what motivates a person.
What information was most surprising to you?
I was most surprised when they were describing doing brain surgery and how the person has to be awake to do this! I did not know that. Also, I didn’t realize that the brain had no pain receptors so they are able to perform surgery and the patient can be awake without feeling any pain. I was also a little surprised when it mentioned that the surgeon could stimulate a certain area of your brain, and that would make your finger unintentionally twitch or another part of your body would move in some way! I knew there were certain areas of your brain that control certain functions, but I was really amazed when I read that. It was surprising.
What information was most confusing to you?
Probably the thing that was most confusing to me was all the different structures of the brain and their functions, as well as how they all relate to each other. Each one plays its own part of a bigger picture, and it’s kind of confusing to put it all together and see where every part fits.
What information do you want to learn more about?
The information I would like to learn more about is the “Motivated and Emotional Brain”. I never really thought of the brain have a “motivated” and “emotional” part to it. A brain was just a brain. It was interesting to learn that the brain doesn’t only control thinking, but it is also the center of emotion and motivation. The brain makes cravings, needs, desires, pleasures, and all of our emotions. I never thought of our brain playing a role in all of those things. The text also described it as the brain using cognitive-intellectual functions, as well as motivation (if you want to do something or not) and emotion (how you feel why you are doing it). This topic really interested me, and I would love to learn more about how they are all connected.
How has your understanding of motivation changed now that you’ve learned about some of the biological/physiological bases of it?
I’ve learned that there are several different influences on our motivation. I never really viewed motivation as having to do anything with our brain or hormones—but it does! They actually play a big part. For example, when looking at hunger and the motivation to eat, I realized there is a lot more behind it than just being hungry because you skipped a meal. The hypothalamus monitors how much ghrelin is in your blood, and when that rises it tells your body that you are in need of more nutrients! This chapter made me look a lot more in depth to what may be behind the simplest of motivations.
This chapter talks about the different parts of the human brain and what those parts do for us. There are three basic principles that many scientists research when it comes to motivation and the brain is: 1) specific brain structures generate specific motivations 2) biochemical agents stimulate specific brain structures and 3) day-to-day events stir biochemical agents into action. Next the book points out the specific parts of the brain and explains what those parts of the brain do. The first part talked about is the hypothalamus. In the hypothalamus there are different interconnected nuclei that have different functions including, eating, drinking, and mating, along with many other functions. The medial forebrain bundle is next. This part of the brain is considered to be the “pleasure center”. Another part is the orbitofrontal cortex. This part of the brain is the part that helps us to make decisions between two or more things. The amygdala detects and responds to threatening and emotionally significant events. Different parts of the amygdala control different emotions such as anger and fear. The septo-hippocampal circuit forecasts the emotions of certain upcoming events. If we are going to be going on a fun trip in the next week this part of the brain is going to control how excited you are for the trip. The anterior cingulated cortex controls your day-to-day mood. The next part of the brain talked about is the reticular formation. This part of the brain plays a role in arousal and awakening the brain’s motivational and emotional concerns. The prefrontal cortex and affect generates emotional states for an individual.
The information that surprised me the most was that a part of someone’s personality and how they may act depends partly on which side of the prefrontal lobe has the greatest activity. Someone who shows greater right side activity may be more sensitive to criticism while someone who shows a greater left side activity may go out of their way to get the things that they want in life.
The information that was the most confusing to me was within the same area of subject matter that I talked about in second paragraph. Even though this was the most interesting information to me it was kind of confusing because what makes someone’s left side more active than their right side and vice versa?
I would like to learn more about the different hormones in the body and what these hormones do for people. This chapter briefly explains some hormones in the brain, but I think it would be interesting to learn how certain amounts of these hormones affect the body.
I now understand that motivation has a psychological component to it. I always just assumed that motivation was more based on our emotions. Now I know that emotions are linked to the brain and different parts of the brain are going to produce different motivations for different people based on the hormones and functions that the certain parts of the brain do.
• Summary
Chapter three is accurately titled “The Motivated and Emotional Brain”. Within the chapter I read about how different structures of the brain create specific motivations—such as ghrelin being produced in the stomach and released into your bloodstream to send the message to the hypothalamus to give you the, “I’m hungry and need to eat” thought, or motivation to eat. Likewise there are environmental events that send biochemical agents to different brain structures giving you different emotions.
The chapter went further into depth about the different brains structures and their roll in motivation and emotion. Table 3.1 on page 54 provides a list of structures and their associated experience whether it be motivational or emotional. The hypothalamus, for example, controls the ANS which controls body organs that are involuntary in their actions (such as the intestines and heart) via neuronal innervations. The amygdale is almond shaped and regulates emotions such as fear and anger by deciding how to react to a threatening environmental event. There are a few different brain structures involved in making choices. The Anterior cingulated cortex and the orbitofrontal cortex deal with the processes involved in choosing one thing over the other. Arousal comes from the brain stem. The Reticular formation sends its message through nerves up to the brain as well as down to regulate muscle tonus.
Finally, neurotransmitters are described as neurons and projections that form four different types of pathways: dopamine (good feelings), serotonin (mood), norepinephrine (arousal) and endorphin (anxiety). These hormones are essential for survival and provide us with rewards for certain behaviors, or drugs.
• What information was most surprising to you?
I was particularly surprised that when dopamine is released the reward will be greater if the event that caused it was unexpected. I would have assumed that the more important the event was to survival of the species the greater the reward would be. I was also surprised that the amygdale sends projections to every part of the brain involving emotion but only a small amount of projections return to the amygdale in response. This imbalance causes emotions (especially negative ones) to literally overpower the brain before reason takes place. I was surprised to learn that THIS is why I freak out sometimes and that these are ‘primitive emotions’. So does this mean as we evolve as humans, we are less and less likely to “let our emotions get the best of us”?
• What information was most confusing to you?
As I have had biopsychology, not a lot of this information was confusing. What I found the most difficult to grasp is how different areas of the brain can do the same thing—such as the anterior cingulated cortex as well as the orbitofrontal cortex dealing with choices. It is also an overwhelming about of terminology, structures, and functions to take in at one time.
• What information do you want to learn more about?
I am extremely interested in the Prefrontal Cortex and its Affects. The book reads that the right prefrontal cortex generates avoidance related feelings while the left deals with approach related feelings. I am very interested in the inter-individual differences within peoples’ sensitivity to negative and positive events and how it affects their right and left prefrontal cortex. I am curious as to how this changes over time (i.e. something happens to a confident happy person to make them now vulnerable to negative emotionality and vise versa).
• How is your understanding of motivation changed now that you've learned about some of the biological/physiological bases of it?
I now have a much greater understanding of how motivation starts within the brain and that we sometimes are not aware it is occurring. I learned that our wants and needs interact with and cannot be separated from our social contxt.
-Summarize the chapter.
Chapter three focuses on how the brain relates to the concepts of motivation and emotion. The brain not only creates motivational and emotional states, but it also maintains and regulates them as well. Motivational researchers study the brain using the following three principles: 1. certain brain structures produce different motivational states; 2. neurotransmitters and hormones stimulate certain brain structures; and 3. events that happen every day cause neurotransmitters and hormones to stimulate different areas of the brain. The chapter breaks the brain down into different section, focusing on brain structures within each section and discussing what function(s) each structure has. The chapter also talks about different ways researchers have looked at the brain (e.g., fMRI, PET, and surgery keeping patient awake).
-What information was most surpising to you?
One thing I found really interesting was the idea that the more you diet, the hungrier you get. I’ve always understood dieting as eating a little less and eating healthy, but I never thought of it in terms of hunger. I was surprised by the statement on page 52 which states that the brain has no pain receptors and therefore brain stimulation is painless. When I think about someone playing around poking my brain I think of horrible pain. I think it’s also interesting to read about surgeries where patients are required to stay awake during the brain surgery—that would creep me out! The section about the similarities and differences between liking and wanting was also pretty interesting and surprising to me. I never would have thought that the most rewarding experience occurs when wanting and liking exist together.
-What information was most confusing to you?
Some of the terminology used in the book was a little confusing and hard to keep straight. It helped me to keep a picture of the brain with the specific structures the chapter was talking about labeled on the sheet.
-What information do you want to learn more about?
I think it would be interesting to learn a little more about fMRI’s and what these tests are useful in looking at.
-How is your understanding of motivation changed now that you've learned about some of the biological/physiological bases of it?
After reading this chapter, my understanding of motivation as changed a little bit. I have taken the class Biopsychology, so some of this material was familiar to me previous to reading it.
Chapter 3 gives the reader a description of different parts of the brain that have an impact on an individual’s internal motivation and emotion. When reading Chapter 3 there are a lot of parts of the brain that I didn’t know had such a large impact on motivating an individual or changing their emotion based on their environment. The fact that murders go up in hot weather is enough to catch my attention because I had no idea that the temperature could affect a person’s actions that much.
The information that was most confusing to me was how the septo-hippocampal circuit can anticipate or forecast emotions associated with certain events. The book goes into detail about how the nucleus accumbens and the hippocampus affect how your body will react to a specific situation that is either expected or unexpected. I think it is fascinating that your brain is able to perform this function.
After reading Chapter 3 the topic I would like to learn more about would be more in depth analysis of the effects of the hormones, cortisol, testosterone, and oxytocin in specific situations such as athletics. It would be interesting to learn how high the levels of these hormones are in the most successful athletes in the world. The results could be surprising and could help future athletes to train more efficiently.
My understanding of motivation has changed quite a bit after reading this chapter. Before reading the chapter I thought that motivation was mostly a cognitive process where a person decided something that they wanted to achieve and motivation was the effort they showed day in and day out to accomplish it. The chapter didn’t completely change my understanding of it but it showed me how the brain reinforces the event that rewards you and makes you desire it even more. The last thing that my understanding really changed was the prefrontal cortex. I didn’t realize that this part of the brain had such a large impact on what you were motivated to achieve and how you were motivated.
Chapter three describes how parts of the brain and different hormones influence the way we behave. This chapter discusses how the brain notifies the body the body to signal everything from basic our needs such as when to eat to superficial wants and desires. I found it interesting to learn that there are three basic process that occur in regards to brain activity: brain structures creating motivational states, hormones that stimulate the brain structures, and daily events that activate the hormones into action. I was surprised to learn that the hippocampus regulates anxiety. I learned about a study in Health Psychology that the hippocampus has to do with memory, but I didn't realize that it interacted with anxiety as well. I would be very interested in learning more abou the hippocampus. I was a little bit confused about the section about the medial forebrain bundle and I would be interested in learning more about it as well. Learning about the hippocampus helped me understand why people have anxiety attacks – because the brain is trying to motivate the body to be alert for potential harm.
This chapter in our textbook was about the physiological actions and responses in the brain regarding the onset of motivation--including day to day events, biochemical agents, and specific brain structures. I can confidently say that nothing surprised me in this chapter. I'm fascinated with the brain and how it works, and I have taken several classes on brain physiology. I already knew much about what brain structures do to aid in their respective functions, and I'm actually still toying with the idea of getting a corpus callosum tattoo. While I was not surprised, a few things muddled my brain a bit. Some of the more specific, finely tuned functions of brain structures seem to overlap (as is the case in many bodily structures and their functions) and it will take some studying for me to keep those straight in my mind. One thing I would love to learn more about is the rat with the electronic backpack. I wish there were video of what they did in this experiment. I also want to know how much damage their research did to the rats. It seems as though once used for this, they would have to be killed, as in many research-on-animals situations, and I don't know how I feel about that. My understanding of motivation has be enriched by connecting it to the physiological reactions in the brain which cause humans (and other animals, such as rats) to recognize stimuli and set into motion a response. It makes it more detailed than just thinking that a person wants to do something and so they do it. It's a more arduous process than that, and yet we don't actively witness much of the process, even in our own minds.
Chapter Three was about the relationship of motivation and the brain. It spoke about the various structures in the brain that have to do with motivation and emotion. The book talked about these structures and their different functions. It spoke a lot about the limbic system.
There were also three principles in the book that explained the motivational process in the brain. Technology and surgery have created these principle. The three principles include: brain structures create specific motivation, biochemical agents stimulate brain structures, and daily events stir biochemical agents (hormones) into action.
Surprising and understanding of motivation changed?
I didn't realize just how much of an impact the brain has on motivation. I really feel that I learned a lot. I did not know the fact that brain has no pain receptors. As well as the fact that personality can be associated with prefrontal lobe. I had alway thought that personality was something we were born with and our environment so I didn't realize certain activation on a particular side of the prefrontal lobe could also cause certain behaviors and personality. The chapter gave me a little more understanding of peoples behaviors and why they do certain things. Confusing?
Overall I didn't find chapter three too confusing. Some of the terms and vocab used in the chapter got a little confusing. Learn more?
I think I would like to learn even more in depth about the brain and its association to motivation and emotion. Its interesting to think about the brain and our needs, pleasures, cravings etc. It'd be interesting to learn why certain people have certain cravings etc. I guess I sometimes forget just really how amazing the brain is and all the functions and things it does for us.
Chapter Three Summary and Questions
Chapter three points out the complexity of brain function! Through the use of fMRI and PET imaging we are no longer dependent on surgery as a way to map brain structures related to motivation and emotion. Researchers can now identify the hypothalamus, medial forebrain bundle, and the septal area to name a few associated with positive feelings. There are also numerous individual approaches in motivational aspects within the brain. Negative feelings and the fear response in behavior are evident within the amygdale.
The means of communication is through neurotransmitter messengers that chapter three identifies as four relevant motivational pathways. The first is dopamine and is associated with pleasure. Then serotonin which affects mood and emotion, norepinephrine regulates arousal and how alert you are, and finally endorphins that counter pain, fear and anxiety. Each of these neurotransmitters is released within environmental/social contexts and largely unconscious to our awareness within behavior. This chapter shows and supports the vast complexity of individuals within relationships and within our environmental situations.
While the complexity of what the brain does to maintain motivation or emotional states is not surprising to me. It is surprising that our motives originating in the limbic’s emotional structures rather than in the language basis of the cerebral cortex are identified as only wants, urges or appetite’s seem too vague. I have to wonder or question “how” this initiates or causes motivation to start with. My interest may be motivated on the basis of gender differences and how estrogen and oxytocin compare to testosterone within males and females and is this the sole basis for gender differences (if there is such a thing). I am sure that there are many interactions and none are the sole reason for gender differences but males; are at least suggested, to have issues with “wanting” in addictions.
The most confusing aspect for me was the behavioral inhibition system (BIS) and the behavioral activation system (BAS) and how (or why) this relates to individual personality dimensions of “left-side and right-side asymmetry” and the correlations of scoring them.
To answer how my understanding of motivation has changed, I have to answer that I am trying to learn more biological and physiological basis’s in behavior. I have to admit that many times I have lived unconsciously and unaware of behavioral motivations. I am now considering the “why” aspects of behavior without judging them first. I used to judge based solely on my interaction with an individual’s behavior without considering other aspects of behavior.
Chapter Three Summary and Questions
Chapter three points out the complexity of brain function! Through the use of fMRI and PET imaging we are no longer dependent on surgery as a way to map brain structures related to motivation and emotion. Researchers can now identify the hypothalamus, medial forebrain bundle, and the septal area to name a few associated with positive feelings. There are also numerous individual approaches in motivational aspects within the brain. Negative feelings and the fear response in behavior are evident within the amygdale.
The means of communication is through neurotransmitter messengers that chapter three identifies as four relevant motivational pathways. The first is dopamine and is associated with pleasure. Then serotonin which affects mood and emotion, norepinephrine regulates arousal and how alert you are, and finally endorphins that counter pain, fear and anxiety. Each of these neurotransmitters is released within environmental/social contexts and largely unconscious to our awareness within behavior. This chapter shows and supports the vast complexity of individuals within relationships and within our environmental situations.
While the complexity of what the brain does to maintain motivation or emotional states is not surprising to me. It is surprising that our motives originating in the limbic’s emotional structures rather than in the language basis of the cerebral cortex are identified as only wants, urges or appetite’s seem too vague. I have to wonder or question “how” this initiates or causes motivation to start with. My interest may be motivated on the basis of gender differences and how estrogen and oxytocin compare to testosterone within males and females and is this the sole basis for gender differences (if there is such a thing). I am sure that there are many interactions and none are the sole reason for gender differences but males; are at least suggested, to have issues with “wanting” in addictions.
The most confusing aspect for me was the behavioral inhibition system (BIS) and the behavioral activation system (BAS) and how (or why) this relates to individual personality dimensions of “left-side and right-side asymmetry” and the correlations of scoring them.
To answer how my understanding of motivation has changed, I have to answer that I am trying to learn more biological and physiological basis’s in behavior. I have to admit that many times I have lived unconsciously and unaware of behavioral motivations. I am now considering the “why” aspects of behavior without judging them first. I used to judge based solely on my interaction with an individual’s behavior without considering other aspects of behavior.
Chapter 3 was titled "The Motivated & Emotional Brain" which I found very appropriate. It was all about how the brain plays into motivations and emotions. In figure 3.2, it showed the process in which motivation is created: an environmental event activates the biochemical agent which then stimulates a specific brain structure which in turn generates a specific motivation. Next, the chapter discusses of looking in the brain (i.e, surgically or using an fMRI). Table 3.1 in the text broke down the different brain structures and identified what their specific motivation would be. The book went a step further and organized the structures into which ones were approach-oriented, avoidance-oriented, and arousal-oriented. The text detailed all of these structures and their motivations very well. For example, it detailed the hypothalamus as an approach-oriented structure that regulates important functions (e.g. hunger) and controls the pituitary gland as well as the autonomic nervous system. The chapter mentions four motivationally relevant neurotransmitter pathways: dopamine, serotonin, norepinephrine, and endorphin; however, only dopamine was discussed widely due to its importance. Dopamine is released when incentives as well as rewards are present. The release is greatest with unpredicted or underpredicted rewards. Finally, three hormones dealing with motivation were mentioned: cortisol ("stress hormone"), testosterone (steroid hormone associated with sexual motivation), and oxytocin (bonding hormone).
What information was most surpising to you?
I found it interesting that there were so many structures involved in motivation; they each did their own task and yet were still connected. I was even more surprised by the fact that each structure was categorized as approach-oriented, avoidance-oriented, or arousal-oriented (except for the prefrontal cortex as a whole). I did not know they focused on only one type of orientation.
What information was most confusing to you?
The thing that I was most confused about was the septo-hippocampal circuit. How is it identified in the brain? Also, I don't quite understand how it forecasts emotion associated with upcoming events. Does one area pull the focus to themselves or do all the parts of the circuit work together?
What information do you want to learn more about?
I would love to learn more about the hormones that deal with motivation. In the little bit that was in the chapter, my attention was caught. I want to learn how cortisol and oxytocin work together (because it sounds like they counteract each other).
How is your understanding of motivation changed now that you've learned about some of the biological/physiological bases of it?
My understanding has increased greatly because now I know which parts of the brain do what and the fact that the brain has such a substantial part in the process explains how we are motivated in the first place. I really liked Figure 3.2 because it helped visualize the steps in the process.
There are multiple factors that contribute to all motivators, such as eating. Someone maybe motivated to loose weight but will the experience a increase in ghrelin which may motivate the dieter to then eat so it acts as a physiological motivator that will more than likely overcome the motivation to not eat.This concepts displays how the brain and body come in to role for intrinsic motivators and strong ones. Specific brain structures cause specific motivations such as the amygdala and anger. Neurotransmitters help the communication process between structures such as the nervous system and brain. The biochemical agents fluxuate throughout the day due to internal external variables. fMRI are essential in understanding the roles and funtions of the brain structures. The Hypothalmus regulates important biological funtions, controls the pituitary gland and ANS. The medial forebrain bundle is the eqivalent of a pleasure center wich acts as an reinforcer. The orbitofrontal Cortex acts as the choice making center such as what to puchase eat etc... The Amygdala reacts to emotions, and perception of other peoples emotions such as fear anger and anxiety, and emotional associtations, The Septo-Hippocampal Circut it anticipates events in relation to emotions such as enxiety about a test or how delicious a cholate cookie is going to be. Anterior Cingulate Cortex: regulates mood, and choices. The Reticular Formation arouses brains motivation and emotion centers. Prefrontal Cortex: concious goals, relates to personality differences between individuals. Neurotransmittersare the communication device between varioous systems, Dopamine is a neurotransmitter that causes good feelings, and causes better memory when released and acts as an reinforcer "biology of reward" which is why a lot of people get addicted to some drugs because they cause the release of dopamine and without it they become less sensitive so they need more and more to get that feeling. Cortisol is a hormone related to stress Testosterone is associated with sex drive and oxytocin is related to bonding. The whole point of this chapter was to really establish that a large protion of motivators stem from unconcious motivatiors that are created intrinsically.
What information was most surpising to you? I thought it was really interesting that the amygdala not only plays a role in a persons self preservation emotions but acesses others emotions.
What information was most confusing to you?The specifics of each part of the brain are a little confusing because it seems like there is overlap betwwen some of the funtions.
What information do you want to learn more about? I would like to know more about the assesment of others emotions in relation to our own motivaion
How is your understanding of motivation changed now that you've learned about some of the biological/physiological bases of it? I actually find it much more interesting because there is evidence not just wishy washy this could be a motivator or maybe not, it specifically states how each system influences motivation and has the facts to back up the information.
Chapter 3 discusses the brain as the center of motivation and emotion. “As the brain performs its functions, it cares not only about what task it is doing (using its cognitive-intellectual functions), but it also very much cares about whether you want to do it (motivated brain) and what your mood is while doing it (emotional brain).” There are three principles that guide motivation researchers. First, specific brain structures generate specific motivations. Second, biochemical agents stimulate specific brain structures. Third, day-to-day events stir biochemical agents into action. Much of the motivational brain activity is deciding “yes I want to” readiness to approach objects and events in the environment or an inhibitory “No, I don’t want to” avoidance of objects and events in the environment. The brain structures associated with positive feelings and approach motivation include the hypothalamus, medial forebrain bundle, septal area, orbitofrontal cortex, nucleus accumbens, medial prefrontal cortex, and left prefrontal cortex. The brain structures associated with negative feelings and avoidance motivation include the amygdala, hippocampus, and right prefrontal cortex. In addition the reticular formation was discussed which is an arousal-oriented structure. The four main neurotransmitter pathways relevant to motivation are dopamine, serotonin, norepinephrine, and endorphin. Hormones also underlie motivation and action, including cortisol (the stress hormone) testosterone (the mating hormone), and oxytocin (the tend-and-befriend stress hormone). The most surprising part of Chapter 3 to me was the discussion on how the amygdala sends projections to almost every part of the brain, although only a small number of projections return information back to the amygdala. This imbalance helps to explain why emotion, especially negative emotion, generally overpowers cognition more than cognition overpowers emotion. I was surprised to read that this is changing with evolution that the newer projections and pathways allow for some degree of conscious regulation of primitive emotions. Maybe there is hope for a less reactive and less violent world. What was most confusing to me was the left vs. right asymmetry of the prefrontal lobe. I’m curious if this is what is referred to when people say a left vs. right brain person. I’m also curious if a person’s dominant hand makes a difference on left vs. right asymmetry. Reading this chapter changed my understanding of motivation and emotion because I learned about approach and avoidance. It is a fairly easy concept that explains motivation well, but I never connected approach and avoidance to the biology of the human brain before reading this chapter.
Chapter three talks about the brains specific role in motivation. It talks about how specific brain functions can cause specific behaviors. What neurotransmitters cause motivation and dopamine's role in our behaviors. It talks about other hormones in our body and the world in which our brain lives. Figure 3.2 shows the way the outside environment through a biochemical element stimulates our brain structure and leads to a sensation of motivation. The whole chapter provides many examples about specific motivations and specific parts of the brain. It also discusses an approach vs avoidance bran. The approach brain says I want to do this, while the avoidance brain says I don't want to do this.
What information was most surprising to you?
The most surprising thing to me was the amount of knowledge that we have about how our brain works. The level of detail that we understand ourselves and how we work is extraordinary. At the same time, I was surprised that we do not use that knowledge to help us achieve our goals. I would venture to guess the majority of people have no idea why they do the things they do.
What information was most confusing to you?
It was confusing to me to try and remember all the different emotions and what was connected to which emotion.
What information do you want to learn more about?
I would like to learn more about how to control our motivation and what things we can do and what things we cant. Also why people look back and they have inadvertently done something or not done something that they had no intention of doing or not doing. I would like to know how much of that is controllable and how much is not.
How is your understanding of motivation changed now that you've learned about some of the biological/physiological bases of it?
I had thought that motivation was something everyone could control. I know now that some causes of motivation or involuntary and are not easily controlled. There is a lot more that goes on "behind the scenes" to determine why we do the things we do.
Motivation isn’t just a decision or a state of mind. It involves a series of interlocking chemical and electrical circuits embedded within the biology of our bodies. As events happen in our lives (say, we receive an unexpected compliment), our bodies react by releasing communication in such forms as hormones or neurotransmitters. These are received by certain areas in our brains, which translate the messages to us as certain motivational states. Scientists know the locations of specific brain parts through traditional surgery and through fMRI research. These structures motivate us to not only approach (excitatory “Yes, I want to”) but also to avoid (inhibitory “No, I don’t want to.”)
There were several different brain structures discussed in the text. The first was the hypothalamus. It’s anatomically small but plays a huge role in motivation for food, water, and sex through its regulation of the endocrine (hormonal) system via the pituitary gland and of the autonomic nervous system (involuntary organ control, such as heartbeat.) The medial forebrain bundle is the brain’s “pleasure center,” and the orbitofrontal cortex helps us make decisions by processing incentives. The stimulated amygdala feels like fear, anger, or anxiety to keep us from danger. It also helps process emotions. The septo-hippocampal circuit, made of many inner brain structures as well as part of the cortex, can produce pleasure. It also can produce anxiety if things do not go as expected and the hippocampus goes into its “not-okay” mode. The reticular formation is involved with arousal of both the brain and muscle tonus. The prefrontal cortex has two sides. The left deals with approach-oriented motivation and emotion while the right prefrontal cortex becomes more active in situations involving negative emotions (anxiety, fear) and is avoidance-oriented. People’s personalities vary in relation to which side of their prefrontal cortex is generally more active.
Neurotransmitters, such as serotonin and dopamine, are the chemicals which translate messages between neurons. Dopamine is related to pleasure. It is released when things are better than expected and prior to previously pleasurable experiences, and helps people choose which things to go for and those which are not worth it. Dopamine also sets off pathways relating to goal-directed approach behavior and the muscular/motor system. Some addictive drugs cause the brain to be more dopamine-reactive to the drug than natural events, thereby enhancing the desire for the drug over other things in life. Three important hormones in the body are cortisol (released in stressful situations), testosterone (sexual motivation), and oxytocin (a bonding hormone released as an alternative motivation to the “fight or flight” stress response).
Scientists artificially stimulate areas of the brain to understand its structure, but it is the natural events of our lives that actually stimulate our brains into their emotional and motivational states. Due to brain structure and motivation’s complexity, people can only sometimes voice what’s truly motivating them.
I was surprised to learn that the brain is so differentiated, and how something like a tiny chemical or neurotransmitter can translate to our consciousness and feelings in such strong ways. I was a little confused on the difference between liking and wanting.
After reading that the amygdala has substantially more outgoing communication to other brain parts (including the cortex) than incoming communication, it makes sense that negative emotions seem so overpowering to our consciousness. I’d like to learn more about how this works, the pathways back to the amygdala that do exist, and the possibility of strengthening these connections.
I used to think of motivation mostly as a cognitive function, something people decide on, or sheer willpower. Learning how much the body affects our consciousness and acts for its own ends really changed my perspective. I also enjoyed how the discussion of the different organs and the hormonal and neurotransmitter communication systems lends itself to the vision of each organ being a separate entity, out for its own protection and comfort, communicating with the brain and body as a whole for self-preservation and further growth.
This chapter discussed parts of the brain involved in motivational and emotional states, most notably the structures of the limbic system. These include the hypothalamus, amygdala, and orbitofrontal cortex, among others. Motivational and emotional states are induced through a three-step process, which has been ascertained using techniques such as brain imaging and manual electrical stimulation during brain surgery. The process is as such – first, daily events occur and trigger the release of biochemical agents such as hormones and neurotransmitters. These chemicals then travel to and activate specific parts of the brain. Finally, upon activation, these specific brain structures induce special motivational states. The chapter then goes into a more in-depth discussion of the functions of each specific brain structure, followed by an examination of the neurotransmitter dopamine and its power to incentivize and reward.
Nothing particular about this chapter really surprised or confused me, but I am constantly amazed at how little credit the average person gives the human brain. The brain is an extremely plastic organ, and virtually any sort of repetitive action can cause it to be altered biochemically and physically over time. As humans, we often display a dangerous tendency to end up in an unfavorable situation and continue giving in to the negative habits that put us there in the first place! The reality of the situation is that we actually have the power to rewire our minds at any point – sure, things are tougher when we have strengthened dopamine reward pathways that are associated with unfavorable behavior, but we can reclaim this system through careful self-reconditioning.