Please read the chapter from your text on memory. Please find two topics from the chapter that are of interest to you and discuss what your text has to say on those topics. Next indicate two topics that you would like me to cover in more depth in class.
Let me know if you have any questions.
I found the template theory and prototype theory the most interesting during the lecture and text provided more information, including the pros can cons for both of these theories.
As we learned in class, the template theory suggests that pattern recognition occurs when a match is made between sensory stimuli and an internal mental form. My text also states that the template theory believes we recognize a pattern by comparing it with our set of mental templates. After we compare the pattern we then choose the exact template that perfectly matches what we observe. The example that my text provided helped me understand the template theory more. Fingerprints are matched using the template theory concept. Also, imprinted numerals on checks and products of all kinds are identified by universal product codes which also support the template theory. However, in order for our perceptual system to use the template theory we would need mental templates for every possible percept of every stimulus we are trying to recognize. Template theories also fail to explain some aspects of the perception of letters. We are able to recognize letters in almost any variation of size, font, and orientation. However, the template theory suggests that we have a mental template for each possible size, font, orientation for every letter of the alphabet. It seems impossible for us to store and retrieve so many templates let alone create a new template for every new conceivable object in our perception.
In class we learned that the prototype matching theory occurs when a match is made between a perceived pattern and an abstracted mental pattern. My text suggest that unlike the template theory, this theory is not as precise or exact about matching a pattern. Instead, the prototype is highly representative of a pattern and it seems to explain perception of configurations. I learned from my book that we are able to form prototypes even when we have never seen an exemplar that exactly matches the prototype we are perceiving. Examples of the prototype theory are arrays of dots, a triangle, a diamond, an F, an M, and highly simplified line drawings of faces. Prototypes are even used for witness identifications situations where a well-defined face is created by the police with Identikits. I feel the prototype theory is easier to grasp and understand versus the template theory.
The first thing I would like to learn more about in class would be the role of the perceiver. I'd like to get a better understanding of the multiple meanings stimuli take on. Also, I'd like to learn more about what experts use pattern recognition such as chess players. It's interesting to learn how this concept applies to careers.
Memory, while being one of, if not the most complicated cognitive system, is so omnipresent in our lives that we take for granted the process. Researchers have developed a model for memory that separates the phenomena into two; long term and short term. Short term memory temporarily stores information experienced in the environment and is limited in it's processing ability. It is generally agreed that the STM has 7 "slots"; or can hold 7 pieces of information. A process called chunking groups associated information into one "slot" allowing the brain to temporarily store more information. For example when we see SCIENCE we store the word science not the letters s, c, i etc... This leaves 6 more pieces of information that can be stored, more information. An interesting question is would the processing ability of the STM change if the information presented was not associated in any way? For example the first item could be a picture of a dog, the second the word SCIENCE, and then a high pitched tone is presented etc... Do the results found for STM and it's processing limits only hold up when the information presented is somehow associated? The book presents theories arguing whether Short Term Memory is coded based on visual aspects of the information, or auditory aspects. Perhaps the brain makes a decision on how to code the information sometime in the process of being presented the memory set. Perhaps if the first item is a word, the brain will be in semantic audio mode and will have trouble with items that aren't easily represented with a word or sound.
The fact that chunking occurs, and occurs automatically (think about seeing a word, you don't remember each individual letter you remember the word) may provide support for the Top-Down model of processing. The STM draws upon the long term aspect of memory to associate pieces of information and synthesize them into a "chunk." The example with the word works again, to recognize language and understand the meaning of the symbols that make up the word we must have memory of learning the language. Our brain recognizes the letter grouping to be a word, or language of some kind, and applies a context effect allowing information to be grouped.
Working memory is an interesting aspect of memory. It seems to me that working memory is our conscious effort to process information. For example we are given a phone number. The 7 digits are stored in STM, but to make sure we remember we mentally repeat or begin a phonological loop, saying the numbers over and over in our head. This takes place in working memory, which is named so because it is where we hold information we are consciously working with.
One part of the chapter I thought was interesting but had some trouble understanding was the description of proactive inhibition. Wickens used this concept to provide evidence that information is coded semantically in STM. To my understanding proactive inhibition (PI) is the tendency of the brain to lose recall ability when exposed to multiple memory sets and tested after each. Wickens used a PI design to establish the trend of proactive inhibition using associated words such as breeds of dogs. The first three sets showed marked decrease in recall ability and established PI. On the 4th trial the experimental group was exposed to a group of words that were totally different than the previous associated words, such as numbers or car models. Their recall improved and thus showed a "release from PI." Wickens argued that their brains recognized that the first association was no longer valid so proactive inhibition ended and the only way the brain could recognize the end of the association would be to code the information being held in STM semantically.
Long term memory is a much more abstract and hard to research construct. Some areas of the brain have been linked with aspects of short term memory, ie the hippocampus acts to commit selected information from short term to long term. The book describes the area associated most with long term memory as being the cerebral cortex. The entire outside layer of the brain is not the most precise estimate of a location. It is also hard to get at long term memory because everything we know is a product of LTM. Long term memory is not limited to coding information in a way that is consistent with our senses, and stores everything about an object or situation that it deems relevant, real or imaginary. As for what actually makes the cut to be transferred from STM to LTM it seems that information that can easily be integrated and associated with already stored information is most likely to be kept in Long term. Our brain's organization seems to be based on associations, this can be experienced anytime you try to recall something you haven't thought about for a long time. You find yourself thinking about what reminds you of the wanted memory and sometimes even follow a sort of stream of consciousness through the webs of associations we make.
One thing that interests me in memory decay. The book provided information that suggested what we will forget about something, we will forget it relatively soon after the memory is created. An example of Spanish students was used, in which after a span of any number of years from learning the language, former students were tested on their aptitude in Spanish. It was found that most of the information that was lost was lost in the first 3 years or so and after that the knowledge seemed to remain pretty contact and accessible for as long 30 more years. Maybe this indicates that there is a third aspect of memory, one that lasts temporarily but still much longer than the mere few seconds of STM.
Memory distortion is also interesting. I remember reading a study in which participants were shown a video clip in which a car crashed into something. They were sent home for a period of time and when they returned They were then asked one of three questions "How fast was the car going when it crashed?""How fast was the car going when in destroyed?" and "How fast was the car going when it bumped?" or something along those lines. The researcher found that people reported remembering the car going much faster when they were asked with the word that seemed to imply the most speed. And that people reported remembering a much slower speed when asked with a question that implied a less dynamic video. The bottom line is that the brain is constantly evaluating and associating new information with old and because of this memory is by no means perfect. It is reliable for the purposes we use it for as human animals, but using human memory in situations, say an eyewitness testimony, must be closely considered to be only a subjective and imperfect view of what happened.
Reading Activity – Week #7
While on the topic of memory I found lots of information about Declarative Memory. Declarative Memory is concerned with knowing that something is the case (example: knowing that Des Moines is the capital of Iowa). Declarative Memory covers episodic memory and semantic memory. Declarative Memory has also been known to be referred to as procedural knowledge. The second topic that I found interesting is our sensory stores.
Our senses are constantly being bombarded with information all the time. Most of this information does not get any notice from our attention and therefore it is done unconsciously. My book stated, Information in every sense modality persists briefly after the end of stimulation, which aids the tasks of extracting the key aspects for further analysis. Sperling started the work on what we now know as our iconic store. Iconic Store can be described as a sensory store in which our visual information is held for a short period of time. Our echoic Store, in comparison, is where are auditory information is held for a very short period of time. According to the text, the temporal duration of unattended auditory information is held in the echoic store for approximately 2 seconds.
Declarative Memory is other the other side of the memory spectrum. Declarative Memory is used more for the long term memory storage. As I have already described our Declarative Memory consists of understanding that something is the case. This also includes the use of our Episodic Memory and Semantic Memory. According to some researchers such as Tulving, who studied a lot of topics in this area, thought that episodic memory refers to the storage and retrieval of specific events of episodes occurring in a particular place and at a particular time. A good example that explains this type of memory is thinking back to what you ate for breakfast this morning. Semantic Memory contains information about our build up knowledge about the world.
Two other topics that I would like to discuss in further depth would be memory in the eyes of brain damaged patients or individuals. The second topic that I would like to talk about is the process of Repetition Priming.
My goal for this assignment was not just to read through the chapter(s) in my textbook on memory and pick out those that interested me, but to also find topics that related back to concepts already talked about in class lecture.
One of the first topics discussed in class was about the concept of models which are organization frameworks used to describe processes. They aid us in making predictions by providing a representation of the character of the observation. I also think that visual models help me to remember certain concepts better. One of the models used as an example in the first lecture was that of the representation of memory, talked about in this chapter. The model itself walks us through how a stimulus can be put into primary memory (or STM), which is the immediate memory that never leaves consciousness and provides an accurate representation of events (Solso, MacLin & MacLin, 2005, pp. 206). One of two things can happen at this point with the memories. Forgetting can occur and that information is lost or rehearsal can allow the stimulus to be transferred to secondary memory (or LTM). Secondary memory is permanent memory that is characterized by individual differences (pp. 206).
Another concept that came up in the textbook was how memory relates to attention and a term called incidental learning. This term basically means that it is possible to learn things without conscious attention (Solso, MacLin & MacLin, 2005, pp. 212). I think it is known by most people that we learn better when we actually pay attention but our brain almost needs a type of learning such as this because there are so many stimuli that it is exposed to at once.
Topics for further discussion: reconstructive and constructive memories
Terms: models, primary memory, STM, secondary memory, LTM, incidental learning
The first thing I wanted to talk about was tip of the tongue (TOT) state. People have usually had an experience where they have a feeling of knowing or familiarity with something, but cannot retrieve the information despite they feel that they know it. With these intense instances, this is referred to as TOT. Brown and McNeill have done studies on the TOT state, testing if people could remember specific unique words. Most people could identify syllables in a forgotten word 60% of the time.
Basically everyone experiences these moments, usually once a week, it increases with age, and are resolved during an experience about half of the time. This type of experience suggests that information may be available in memory but inaccessible. This inability to retrieve the information could be caused by a failure to find the correct retrieval cue. Encoding specificity explains this as an example of cue-dependent forgetting.
The next thing I wanted to talk about are different types of rehersal. There is what is referred to as maintenance rehersal, which refers to recycling info within short-term or working memory by covertly verbalizing it. The other form of rehearsal is elaborative rehearsal which refers to linking info in short-term memory with info already stored in long-term memory.
These two types were suggested by Craik and Lockhart, and they discuss rehearsal as being critical in the encoding process. With elaborative rehearsal it can take many forms. You can organize items into categories, associate items with other known info, or form visual or auditory images of items. Imagery works the best for concrete objects that can be readily visualized as compared with abstract concepts.
Craik and Lockhart's Levels of Processing Theory (LOP) is a very useful and simple theory to understand regarding the acquisition and storage of information. Beginning with a shallow sensory analysis, the incoming stimuli are subjected to mere featural analysis. Later, at a deeper level, we are able to extract patterns of recognition. At another level, we can make long-term associations. At the highest level, our cognitive analysis will take over. The text utilizes a simpler method for understanding this concept as well through the letter A. At the earliest stages, we simply see it as lines and angles, then we correllate the form with our association of the letter A. Finally, we are able to utilize past experiences to match this letter and make some meaning.
I have always been an enthusiast for simple explanations of cognitive processes. These "casual" explanations can make it far easier for the common person to understand.
Episodic and Semantic memory conceptualized by Tulvin was interesting as well. I, as I am sure most others thought of when first reading about Episodic Memory, recalled many of my own authobiographical experiences to associate with this particular idea. Like Tulvin states, Semantic Memory is a "Mental Thesaurus". While episodic memory is lost more rapidly, these particular memories have a greater degree of emotionality to them. I ponder the idea that our brain can only handle so much "autobiographical" or "emotional" memory and must occassionally "recycle" these memories for new ones. Particularily, difficult and painful emotional memories must be, at least, submerged so that we do not suffer forever like we do when the initial burst hits us. Like the flesh, the scars of our memories will eventually heal.
I would love to read more studies about the Neuroscience aspect of memory. How the brain actually processes information and the various different components involved in the process is fascinating. I'm sure there is a lot of good literature out there.
Fnally, on a very diverse note, I would like to study more about how other cultures view memories and the value they place on them. While this may not be a firm cognitive aspect, I feel it is certainly worth more study.
My text provides a lot of information about memory issues: STM, LTM, everyday memory, memory errors, etc. It was really interesting for me to read it all, but for today I would like to focus on two aspects of memory processing: capacity of STM and the concept of a “grandmother cell”.
It was mentioned in a text that people usually think about memory in its long-term form. If you ask someone “Why we should appreciate such ability as memory?” people would say about their life memories; beautiful moments they still remember; knowledge and information they need for work of studying, etc. But the importance of STM processes is somehow not that obvious for us. We just take it for granted.
In the so called modal model of memory (proposed by Richard Atkinson and Richard Shiffrin, 1968) STM is presented as one of the structural features of the model, that holds 5-7 items for about 30 seconds. This model has certainly been updated as many data were collected since that period. Nevertheless, this approach played a tremendous role in memory research and is still influential. These magic figures – 5-7 items, or from modern perspective, 7 plus-mines two are seen as the actual capacity of STM. What it means exactly?
We know that information is rapidly lost from STM, moreover, there is a certain limit to how much of it can be hold there. One of the possible ways to measure it is a digit span – the number of digits a person can remember. Its quantity might vary a bit, but the average digit span is about 5-8 digits. According to this we might conclude that the capacity of STM is about 5-8 items. An interesting question is what is an item? If we try to memorize words – are they items, or the sounds, or the phonemes, or the letters? George Miller was one of those who considered this question. He introduced the concept of a chunking, or process of combination small items into bigger one. A chunk is a collection of elements that are strongly associated with one another but are weakly associated with elements in other chunks. For example, the words within one sentence are strongly associated with each other, but not to the words in another sentence, which is another chunk as well.
This is a very important idea, as the concept of chunks can increase our ability to hold information in STM in terms of meaning. Just in example with words if we recall a sequence of 5-8 words and arrange them in meaningful chunks, like sentences, we can expand the STM capacity up to 20 words. Another fascinating example was provided in the experiment by K. Anders Ericsson and coworkers in 1980, when after an intensive training session a college student was able to repeat a sequence of 79 digits without error.
Involvement of LTM and some top-to-bottom processes can also influence the result. Being an expert in some field improves our ability to acquire similar information, because it let us create more and bigger chunks. Thus in the experiments when the participants had to see the pictures of chess pieces on a chessboard for 5 seconds and then recall the position of each figure, chess masters placed 16 pieces out of 24 correctly, while beginners were successful in 4 out of 24 only. It is necessary to point out, that the effect took place when the pieces on a chessboard were arranged in a position from a real chess game. When the pieces were arranged randomly, chess masters and beginners showed no difference in the performance. This case clearly shows the influence of the learned knowledge on the work of the STM, as master’s superior performance was caused by chunking.
Thus chunking is an essential mechanism of STM, as it let us handle 7(+-)2 chunks, not just items. This approach is important, as it influences many applied disciplines, such as second language learning methodology. If beforehand it was stated that in learning new vocabulary the golden rule was 7-9 words a day, probably we can apply the chunking method and expand this limit more.
The second aspect –idea of a grandmother cell - is connected with both memory and perception. In the 1960s Jerzy Konorski and Jerry Lettvin introduced this concept for a highly specified neuron that responds only to a certain stimulus. In some experiments an interesting phenomenon was observed. Through recording from single neuron researches detected firing in a single neuron when the participants were presented certain stimuli. These stimuli were the pictures of Hollywood star Hally Berry in different clothe, drawings of the actress and even just her name written on a screen. The firing neuron seemed to hold the information of the concept, and it did not respond to other stimuli. It was located in hippocampus, a part of brain responsible for memory storage. Such cells can be called “grandmother cells”. It is necessary to mention that this idea is not fully accepted yet and additional testing of the hypothesis is required. What might be more realistic – this neuron is still somehow involved in a very limited and highly specified neuron circuit that processes information through a distributed coding. One of the advantages of such coding would be that firing of a few neurons can potentially signal a large number of stimuli.
Terms used: STM, LTM, neuron circuit, grandmother cell, chunk, distributed coding.
Topics for class: improving memory; physiological basis of memory, role of neurons and synapses.
After reading the chapter on memory, working memory is a concept that stood out to me.
According to the text, working memory is a system that temporarily holds information as we work through cognitive tasks. Working memory has some features of long-term memory as well as short-term memory. Working memory is very active, transforming and combining new and old information. The text states that our span of memory is determined by how long we rehearse that information. As you can see, this doesn’t go along with the idea that our STM holds seven units regardless of the type of information we are presented with. We are only able to rehearse a specific amount of information and that is determined by the time it takes us to vocalize the word. This is referred to as phonological loop.
I am also really interested in the idea of repressed memories. Repressed memories are memories that are basically concealed or hid from our consciousness. Memories that are repressed are typically painful memories or may relate to a traumatic experience one has gone through, such as abuse or rape. After reading about repressed memories I was reminded of a program I ha recently viewed about an individual diagnosed with dissociative identity disorder. It seemed the individuals’ memories were repressed which seemed to be associated with severe childhood abuse that span over several years. It’s noted in the text that under psychotherapy it’s possible that the memories can be consciously recalled.
I would like to learn more about probe items. I am somewhat confused on the concept and how it is involved in reaction time. I would also like clarification on the auditory coding and visual coding. I seemed to get lost when examples about color and how color is coded where discussed how they are related to reaction time.
My textbook didn’t specifically have a chapter just for memory, but instead had a section that covered learning, knowing, and remembering. Within this section topics such as episodic and semantic memory were explained. What I got from reading this section was that episodic memory is remembering a specific episode of your life in the past. Meaning you recollect events that took place at specific places and times in the past. Semantic memory on the other hand refers to factual and conceptual knowledge about the world and the words used to symbolize such knowledge (Kellogg 2003). Sometimes it may be difficult to separate the two types of memory, but my textbook gave a good example to keep the two straight. I am going to make up my own example by changing some of the details. Say for example, you see a litter of puppies for sale. You immediately recognize them as puppies because you see they are small in size, have wagging tales, and other physical properties lead you to believe they are in fact puppies. This means your brain has put together the properties to categorize what you saw were puppies. Your brain also made connections to the word puppy because of your knowledge of what makes up a puppy. This would be an example of how semantic memory works. It would be completely different if you saw the puppies and immediately thought of when you were ten and got to pick out a puppy to keep from a litter. This would be an example of episodic memory.
Once you understand the basic ways in which these forms of memory differ it can become easier to contrast the two. In this section, my textbook goes on to explain that remembering is related to episodic memories while knowing is related to semantic memory. These factors are tested through experimentation in which participants are given a list of words and then must complete a recognition test. If the list of words includes repetition of a specific word multiple times then participants more likely use their semantic memory or “knowing” judgments more during the recognition test. Then if the word is repeated, but this time has the repetitions spaced out throughout the list a person uses their episodic memory or “remembering” judgments more during the recognition test. I find this interesting and would personally explain it by saying if I took part in the experiment I would be able to pair the repetitious words together and therefore know that there were repetitions during the recognition test. Yet, if the repetitious words were spaced out I would have to recollect the episode in which I remembered the repeat words. Therefore, I would express more episodic or remembering judgments during the recognition test.
My textbook did not go into much detail on these two topics of memory, but I felt it important to clarify the ways in which the topics differ. Both are ways in which memory is recalled, but the steps in which the brain takes to recall memory can be totally separate. I wish my textbook would have gone on to describe how episodic and semantic memory differs by strength. Meaning would an episodic memory be more detailed oriented than a semantic memory or vice versa? Two other topics I would like to be covered more in depth in class include results found from testing episodic v. semantic memory and see if there are differences in their strengths and what specific parts of the brain are used to recall episodic and semantic memory.
Terms: Episodic memory, semantic memory, recognition
One topic that came of interest to me in my memory chapter was the section on "The Fallibility of Memory and Eyewitness Identification." This section talks about how personal memories are not always fully correct so how can eye witness accounts be as correct as people make them out to be. Many people give a lot of credit to an eye witness account. People tend to believe those under oath who are saying that they indeed saw this certain person, do this certain crime. Loftus was one of the first who challenged this idea and stated that people's memory is able to be distorted.
Loftus first experiment asked college students questions about a videotape they had watched. Depending on how the question was phrased ("How fast was the white sports car going on the country road" vs. "How fast was the white sports car going when it passed the barn while traveling on the country road") the students may have reported seeing a barn a week later, while in reality there was no barn. Another experiment was shown with stop/yield signs at an intersection where a car hit the pedestrian. The people in the experimental group were then given opposite information at the sign and at question only 41% chose the original slide they saw.
The text stated that memory is not only reconstructive (one consumes facts about the world and then regurgitates them exactly as they were ingested). Memory is actually constructive (prior experience, post event information, perceptual factors, and even one's desire to remember certain events over others influence is key). Repressed memories (a person may exclude from consciousness a particularly painful memory) are also mentioned in this area. Repressed memories are also a defense mechanism (Freud idea). Loftus argued that while many repressed memories that resurface are real, others can actually be false memories (reconstructed stories about events that did not occur but are invented to satisfy demands of a therapist).
The second topic of interest was autobiographical memories. These are memories of an individual's past history. I think to me this topic was extremely interesting because I hope to be doing casework in the near future. Individual memories can really help to tell us more about a person's personality and how a person became the person they are today. I think the textbook described it the best when it stated "that the contents of one's personal memory are not unlike the contents of one's attic - more a selective collection of important and odd memories than an indiscriminate stowing of all sensory impressions in our cerebral warehouse." A person's autobiographical memories are typically very good.
Linton actually did a study on her own memory where she wrote on cards every day the last two events that happened that day. She did this for six years and at the end of every month she would pull two cards and try to remember what happened. Her results actually showed a linear pattern (this was different than the typical curvilinear patterns that had been shown before). She noticed that over a long period of time it becomes more difficult to retrieve items. She noted two different types of forgetting. The first had to deal with events that were repeated (committee meetings every month). In her memory they would start to almost combine themselves and she could not remember what happened at each specific one. The second was just events she completely forgot about. Even though she may have had high emotions in one night she still could not recall it. They used the example of it being like "I will never forget this night" and not being able to recall that night later.
Another study that was done later was with a patron of the Metropolitan Opera. He was asked to freely recall details about the 284 performances. He found a primacy and recency effect (he could remember things at the beginning and last part of the 25 year span).
Things I would like to learn more about is specific examples of research with memory or certain cases (like H.M's case - I find it really interesting). Summation and quick review of STM and LTM.
Terms: reconstructive, constructive, repressed memories, false memories, primary and recency effect, autobiographical memories
I thought that introduction to my textbook’s chapter on memory had some very interesting pieces of information. It talked about how memories give our lives their meaning. We are defined by what we remembering happening to us - and what we have learned from the past. My book also says that is would be terrible to lose a sense of attention of perception but to lose your memory would take away ‘one’s very life and personhood’. I had not thought of memory in that context. I had not realized the full extent of our memories - they are not just from childhood experiences of family reunions. Memories also includes what happened two days ago, or two seconds ago…
The first topic I will discuss refers to memory encoding, storage, and retrieval. Specifically, infantile amnesia that is the inability to remember things before we are 2-3 years old. We have discussed encoding, storage, and retrieval briefly before - in class, through readings and in previous textbook assignments.
Encoding deals with how information is perceived, what categories of organization our brain puts them in. Storage is when we are able to keep the information that we have encoded. Retrieval is when we are able to recall the information that has been stored. The retrieval process is determined by how the information was encoded and stored.
As previously stated infantile amnesia is when we are unable to recall anything from when we are younger than 2-3 years old. There are a few theories that attempt to explain this phenomena. Freud was the first to discuss a theory. He said that our early thoughts were repressed to avoid stress. That stress would have done damage to our ego - he related this to psychotherapy. A second theory suggests that an infant does encode the memories but they are saved in a context that is not accessible to adults. This is because adults process, and therefore, retrieved information using language processes. We think in words. However, before the ages of 2 or 3 we do not sufficient vocabulary to store this information in the context of language especially when we have developed our vocabularies later or throughout our lives. The final theory talks about an inability to retain information at the that cognitive level / age. We do not have an understanding of memories and what they mean to us. That is we do not even start to develop a sense of self until about 22 months of age. My books sums up with the most likely cause for this memory loss is the initial absence of a self-concept or in the absence of language.
The second topic I looked at for memory deals with short term and long term memory and how information moves from one to the other. In class we discussed iconic memory which is a ‘brief’ memory. We did an in-class experiment where we were shown a set of letters for a matter of milliseconds then a pitch-cue went off just after the message flashed. The sound cues were high, medium, and low sounds. Each pitch indicated a row of numbers. The importance of this test is that the sound does not cue until after the letters were gone. However, we are able to recall some of the information that was presented. In my text it said that the amount of time between when we see the letters and when we recalling/ verbalizing them we forget what they were - or at least some of them. This is because the information was not even transferred into short term memory long enough to be recalled. Similar to this is when we read, or listen to a list of words. We will remember the words at the beginning of the list and at the end. This is called the serial position effect. The amount of information we take in is in the shape of a U - we are least likely to remember the items in the middle of the list.
The words at the beginning of the list are likely to be remember/recalled because of the primacy effect. The primacy effect is when you recall most or all of the initial items in a list. However, we are likely to recall the items at the end of the list first. This is called the reccency effect. My book said that these effects have been recognized for over a decade. I think is it interesting that we have bits of knowledge about the brain that date back so far - we are also learning new things about the same areas of the brain!
Two areas of further research that sound interesting to me deal with interference. They are proactive interference and retroactive interference. When we cannot learn new things due to our past experience and knowledge and vise versa - when we cannot remember past experiences due the knew knowledge we have. This makes me wonder about our capacities to learn and whether or note there are loopholes to these types of cognitive processes. Or is this like the seven item limit give or take two items?
Terms: Memory, Encoding, Storage, Retrieval, Infantile Amnesia, Retrieval Process, Ego, Language Processes, Short Term Memory, Long Term Memory, Iconic Memory, Serial Position Effect, Primacy Effect, Reccency Effect.
The book I purchased for this course was divided into several chapters on memory. The chapter I chose to read more about was entitled Remembering Events. One of the main topics of discussion within this chapter is Long-Term Memory. The discussion on LTR is divided into two subtopics, declarative memory and semantic memory.
Declarative memory, according to the text, refers to the knowledge of events, facts, and concepts. The text describes this as being able to interpret and remember what the world presents to us. In short, any event that we experience can be an example of declarative memory (such as a memorable concert or family get together).
Semantic memory, in essence is the knowledge store of conceptual data. Knowing what any object is, is an example of a conceptual piece of knowledge. This is not to be confused with remembering an actual event associated with the object (picking up a sled and remembering when your brother went sledding, for instance) because this requires the episodic component of declarative memory.
The topics previously posted are a part of the second topic I read about. It is generally accepted that both Semantic Memory and Declarative Memory are present in human beings, but there are criticisms to that theory. In short, the criticisms are based around the issue of priming (stimulus bias caused from showing one stimulus and then another). The texts states that some researchers argue that even though results from tests appear to be episodic memory (an important component of declarative memory) the result of actually remembering an event may have come from priming the subject.
I would like to learn more about encoding/decoding and the various levels of processing.
Terms: Long-Term Memory, Declarative Memory, Semantic Memory, Episodic Memory, Priming, Stimulus
The idea that memory is constructive fascinates me because it means every event is unique to each individual who experiences it. Constructive memory implies that what we recall is influenced by our experiences prior to the event, information received after the fact, our own perceptions of the event, and the desire to remember the details of our experience over the influence of others. Solso gives the example of a sporting event in which a team’s performance is poor. Despite the team’s poor performance and the outcome of the event, if you asked some of the die-hard fans about it, you might get the impression the team won the game and performed exceptionally. Each individual’s perspective is rationalized differently. Constructive Memory is further broken down into three stages: perception, memory, and recall. Perception is influenced by the immediate surroundings and the emotions or feelings of a person at the time of the event. For instance, if a person feels their life is in danger during a situation, it will shape how they will remember everything that happened. During the memory stage, other memories may be incorporated in with, or influence, the new memories (prior experiences and the memories formed immediately after). Racial biases and other personal factors have a significant impact during this stage. These biases may have developed in a person’s lifetime or possibly been inherited as a result of someone else’s memory. In the recall stage, a memory is very susceptible to the influence of others who want a desired outcome to be achieved.
I’ve always loved how susceptible to influence people can be and a component of memory that directly deals with this is false memories. False memory is the recollection of an event, or the details of an event, that did not actually occur. A lot of the time these false memories are created in therapy settings or are placed in the memory by an outside source. Repressed memories, significant memories unable to be recollected, are often highly susceptible to having inaccurate details included when they are recalled. False memory studies show how easily memories can be manipulated without a person losing any confidence in their recall ability. The movie “My Cousin Vinny” always gets me hyped-up about this subject and provides examples that demonstrate importance of understanding how this kind of memory works.
I would really like to learn more about long term memory, specifically how it works with certain memories that are dormant until someone else recalls details about them from their own memory. Or, basically, what extent does our long term memory interact with external cues? Over the last few weeks, I have read a good deal about autobiographical memory and know it consists of both episodic (personal experiences) and semantic (general knowledge of the world) components. I would like to learn more specifics about these the types and autobiographical memory in general. I would also be interested to learn more about memory in the legal system. It’s always entertaining hearing examples and how memory is involved.
Terms: Constructive Memory, False Memory, Repressed Memory, Autobiographical Memory, Episodic, Semantic
Cognitive Psychology (6th ed.) by Robert L. Solso
Episodic memory and Semantic memory are two separate systems of memory. While in one system you know about events, and another you can recall. I am going to take a look into the differing systems and how they are starkly different.
When looking at episodic and semantic memory we must look at them as systems that operate on entirely different principles and that they pay attention to different kinds of information. To note these differences we must first understand that in episodic memory we hold onto information about events and episodes that have happened to us directly. In semantic memory we store information such as concepts, facts, and ideas. One is personal and linear, the other informative and general.
With episodic memory events are remembered in a linear fashion. One happening before or after the other. While semantic memory is arranged in a web like fashion. With memory based on meanings, and relationships and piecing that information together with other meanings and terms.
Tulving’s ideas on memory are backed up when looking at different cases of amnesia. Where some people may recall where they lived, what job they had, and the specifics of their life. But have no emotional reaction to the people or things in their life. The reason being is they no longer hold the history that made those things important. It is removed and now filled with a void. While in other cases some people forget the meaning of commons words, forget most to everything about historical events. This is semantic amnesia. Where information is loss in regards to everything that is learned. Which I think points out a great distinction between the memory systems. One is learned while the other is experienced. Questions I would inquire about would be whether it is easier to relive episodic amnesia vs. semantic.
Topics I would like to see discussed in class would be more information on schemas and how they relate to our perception and our ability to know and memorize.
I wasn’t for sure which chapter on memory we were suppose to read so I read about both LTM and STM in both chapters. I really found a lot of interesting information within these two chapters and it was hard to pick what to write about.
At first I was going to write about TOT (Tip of the Tongue state) as I think when this happens it frustrates us all to no end. But ultimately I have decided to talk about how memory is reconstructed and general categories of information in the LTM. I chose these because I find them interesting and I’m hoping I’ll understand them more by discussing them here.
Bartlett discusses how memory is reconstructed in our book by six different bases. This kind of reminds me of the game o telephone and helps explain why stores can change so drastically. The first, omission, is when specific information is left out. Information that doesn’t seem important or seems out-of-place isn’t remembered as well when retelling a story. Rationalization is next and this happens when information is added to make something clear. Next is dominant theme, which is relating details to the dominant theme and dropping other themes. Transformation of information happens when more common words replace more unusual words. Then we have transformation of sequence where events in the story are mixed up. Lastly there is participate attitude. This the way the person feels about the material. The way they feel towards it determines how they recall it.
The second topic I wanted to discuss is types of memories, long-term memories. The first is spatial ability which helps us determine where we are in the world as well as other objects. Therefore it helps us navigate our way around. Next is physical properties of the world which enable us to interact with other objects safely. Social relationships help us tell our family and our friends from our enemies. It helps us determine who we can trust. Then, social values is what we know is important to the group. Next, motor skills helps us to use tools and other objects. Lastly, perceptual skills are what make understanding stimuli within our environment possible (i.e. language and music).
I would like you to talk more about level of processing vs. information processing and coding of information in STM. But I would also like to learn more about implicit/explicit memory.
Terms: Memory, LTM, STM, TOT, Reconstructed, Omission, Rationalization, Dominant Theme, Transformation of Information, Transformation of Sequence, Participate Attitude, Recall, Spatial Ability, Physical Properties of the World, Social Relationships, Social Value, Motor Skills, Perceptual Skills, Level of Processing, Information Processing, Implicit Memory, Explicit Memory
Perhaps a little unfortunately, my interests take a more biological turn. Memory is an absolutely fascinating subject. Perhaps there is no practical use to knowing that there is short-term memory (this is self-explanatory) and that it contains roughly 7 items (miller’s number) but it’s content can be modified by using chunking, grouping similar data into a set that can be held in short term memory together. All this is very interesting but it is not biological.
The big biological word in memory is Long Term Potentiation (LTP). My text book did not contain a lot on this topic so I decided to do a Google search on it. It is an extremely complicated chain of chemical reactions that occur in a very specific area in the hippocampus. From other classes I know that the hippocampus is involved in memory consolidation so that is what I’m assuming LTP is. As a result of the series of chemical events, we end up with a cell that can be more easily communicated with. In effect, the receptors on the dendrite work more efficiently. By the way, I find out calcium and phosphate are crucial for this process to occur so I am taking those supplements the minute I go home and am making sure I never go deficient with them. One thing that caught my attention is that somewhere along the chain reaction cyclic AMP’s are formed. It has been several years since I had a biology class, but I vaguely remember that it had something to do with the intake of outside materials into the cell. And that would make sense, cAMP would facilitate the action of Glutamate—I believe the major neurotransmitter involved—and thus making that particular synapse more effective.
I also like the concept of Working memory. I had always thought of Short term memory as working memory and now that I have found out they are distinct, it makes more sense to me. Short term memory would be involved in storing information and working memory would be involved in processing it. There is a rehearsal mechanism built in with working memory that is called the phonological loop. Basically, whatever information you have acquired, you tell it to yourself over and over again until it sticks. I also like the visuospatial scratchpad. Although I did not call it that, five years ago I had a particularly strong visuospatial scratchpad. For example, as long as I had read a passage thoroughly—even just once—I could call it up from my memory and reread it at any point. I can’t do that anymore. In working memory, there is a balance between the scratchpad and the loop that is controlled by the central executive.
Now that we have mentioned my unusual scratchpad and the loss of it, I undertook the daunting task of finding a new method of sustaining accurate memory. I was particularly intrigued by the in class discussions about mnemonics and especially the memory palace. I decided I wanted a memory palace of my own. However, I knew my self well and I know that I do not pay attention to my surroundings much and the memory palace depends on the method of loci. I also had learned about he self-referencing effect and decided I had to personalize my palace. The thing is, I have a talent for stories, in particular, Harry Potter. So what I did is, I isolated particular events in the books that I remember vividly (from memory, I did not look these events up) and I inserted myself talking to Hermione in them. This sounds silly, but it worked. In the beginning of the semester I had been doing poorly in a chemistry class simply because I did not remember as much from class. My grade improved steadily in the next two tests and on the final I got almost 100%! It seriously worked and better than I thought it would.